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HINTS 


PRACTICAL  INFORMATION 


CABINET-MAKERS,   UPHOLSTERERS,  AND 
FURNITURE  MEN  GENERALLY. 


TOGETHEB    WITH 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF   FINISHING.  WITH  FULL  DIRECTIONS 

THEREFOR— VARNISHES— POLISHES— STAINS     FOR    WOOD-DYES 

FOR  WOOD-GILDING  AND    SILVERING— RECEIPTS   FOR  THE 

FACTORY— LACQUERS,     METALS,     MARBLES,  ETC.— 

PICTURES,  ENGRAVINGS,  ETC.— MISCELLANEOUS. 


NEW    YORK: 
THE    INDUSTEIAL    PUBLICATION    COMPANY 

1899. 


CA>fOS 


WEGETTVCgWm 
UBRAI»V 


PREFACE. 


While  a  large  amount  of  the  matter  contained  in  this  work 
has  been  published  before  in  some  shape  or  other,  it  was  found 
in  many  instances  incorrect,  and  therefore  unreliable;  this  was 
in  a  great  measure  owing  to  the  carelessness  and  want  of  icnowl- 
edge  on  the  part  of  the  compilers,  for  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  original  recipes,  methods,  etc.,  were  in  the  main  correct;  but 
in  the  frequent  reproductions,  errors,  omissions,  and  interpola- 
tions occurred.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  publishers  of  the 
present  work  to  make  all  necessary  corrections,  and  to  render  the 
work  as  reliable  as  may  be ;  and  to  this  end  neither  expense  nor 
pains  have  been  spared,  and  much  new  matter  that  has  not  been 
generally  known  before  has  been  added  to  that  which  has  been 
public  property  for  a  long  time.  That  the  work  will  be  found  a 
valuable  aid  to  the  operative  cabinet-maker,  furniture  man,  and 
to  wood- workers  generally,  there  is  not  the  least  doubt,  and  its 
price  has  been  kept  down  to  such  a  point  as  will  not  be  beyond 
the  means  of  the  average  workingman. 

New  York,  1884. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Description  of  Cabinet-Making,  Designing,  Framing,  Veneering,  Inlay- 
ing, Carving,  Eeeding,  Mouldings,  Figiiues,  Composition  Ornaments,    -       20 

Filling.— Fillers  for  Walnut,  for  Light  Woods,  tor  Cherry,  for  Oak,  for  Rose- 
wood, Sizing, 25 

Application  of  Varnishes. — Bru.shes  for  Varnishing,  Varnish  Pan,         -       29 

Rubbing, --------,30 

Flowing  and  Polishing.— Flowing,  Varnish,  Polishing,     -       .       -       .       31 

Varieties  of  Finish.— Dead  Finish,  Varnish  Finish,  Wax  Finish,  Imitation 
Wax  Finish,  Ebony  Finish,  French  Polishing,  The  Ingredients,  French 
Polish,  Improved  Polish,  Water-proof  Polish,  Prepared  Spirits,  Polish 
for  Turner's  Work, 38 

Staintng.— Black  Stain,  Brown  Stain,  Walnut  Stain,  Oak  Stain,  Rosewood 
Stain,  Cherry  Stain,  Red  Stain,  Mahogany  Stain,  Surface  Stains,  Crim- 
son Stain,  Purple  Stain,  Blue  Stain,  Green  Stain,  Yellow  Stain,  To  Brighten 
Stains, 43 

Dyeing  Wood.— Black  Dye,  Blue  Dye,  Yellow  Dye,  Green  Dye,  Red  Dye, 
Purple  Dye,  Liquid  for  Brightening  and  Setting  Colors,  Orange  Dve' 
Silver  Gray  Dye,  Gray  Dye,       - -47 

Gilding,  Silvering  and  Bronzing.— Gilding,  The  Reqnisite.s,  Sizes  Oil- 
Size,  Parchment-Size.  Gold-Size,  To  Prevent  Gold  Artherino-  Oil-Gild- 
ing, Burnish-{;il(lirvii.  Frcpiiiinur  tlft>  Wood-work,  Polishing,  Applying  the 
Size,  Layinsr  the  Gold,  Biiniishiiiir.  Martin;;  or  I)ea(l-(;old,  Finishirio-  Shell- 
Gold,  Silver-Size,  Composition  for  Frames,  Ornaments,  To  ManipiUate 
Gold  Leal,  Bronzing, --55 

Graining  and  Color  Work.— Graining.  The  Process,  Graininff-Grounds 
Light  Wamscot  Oak,  Darker  Wainscot  Oak,  Dark  Oak.  Very  Dark  Oak 
Mahogany,  Rosewood,  Bird's  Eye  Maple,  Graining-Grounds,  Mixing 
Colors,  Cream  Color,  Pearl  Grey,  Fawn,  Buff,  Straw,  Drab,  Purple  Violet 
French  Grey  Silver,  Dark  Chestnut,  Salmon.  Peach  Blossom,  Lead,  Dark 
Lead,  Chocolate,  Light  Yellow,  Stone,  Olive  Green.  Grass  Green  Carna- 
tion, Imitation  of  Gold,  Colors  for  Outlines  of  Ornaments,  Tones  Tints 
Shades,  Tempera,  Distemper,  Color  Harmony  in  Grained  Work,  Chinese 
White,  Mixing  White  Lead,  Varnish  Green,    -       -       -       .       .       . 


VARNISHES. 


69 


Gums  and  Their  Qualities.— Amber,  Anime,  Copal,  Oil  Varnishes,  Spirit 
Varnishes,  Lac,  Sandarac,  Mastic,  Damar,  Resin,  -       -       -       -       -    71 

The  Solvents.— Linseed-Oil,  Oil  of  Turpentine,  Alcohol,  Naphtha,      -       -    72 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

Preparation  of  Oil  Varnishes.— Copal  Varnish,  Artists'  Virgin  Copal, 
Cabinet  Varnish.  Best  Body  Copal.  Carriage  Varnish,  Wainscot  Varnish, 
Pale  Amber  Varnish,  --. 82 

Preparation  of  Spirit  and  Tirpentine  Varnishes.— Best  White  Hard 
Spirit  Varnish.  White  Hard  Varnish,  White  Siiirit  Varnish,  Brown  Hard 
Spirit  Varnish,  Hard-wood  Lacquer,  French  Polish,  Bleached  Shellac, 
Lacquer  for  Brass,  Colored  Lacquers,  Mastic  Varnish,  Turpentine  Var- 
nish, Crystal  Varnish,  Paper  Varnish,  Water  Varnish,  Sealing- Wax  Var- 
nish. Black  Varnish,  Varnish  for  Iron.  Varnish  for  Cane  and  Basket  Work,    96 

POLISH  REVIVERS,  ETC. 

Polish  Revivers.- French  Polish  Revivers,  Furniture  Reviver.  Furniture 
Cream.  Furniture  Paste,  Several  Receipts  for  Furniture  Cream,  White 
Furniture  Cream, .....98 

GLUE. 

Glue.- To  Prepare  Glue,  Mixing  Glue,  Glue  Pot,  To  Prevent  Glue  Crack- 
ing, Strong  Glue  to  Resist  Moisture,  Portable  Glue,      -       -       -       .       -  101 

MISCELLANEOUS  RECEIPTS. 

To  Raise  Old  Veneers.— To  Take  Out  Bruises  in  Furniture,  To  Make  Paste 
for  Laying  Cloth  or  Leather,  Cements  for  Stopping  Flaws  in  Wood,  Ma- 
hogany ;  Colored  Cement,  Cement  for  Turners,  Tracing  Paper,  Mounted 
Tracings,  Cracks  in  Drawing  Boards,  To  Temper  Tools,  Hardening  Tools, 
To  Cut  Steel  Scrapers,  To  Remedy  Splits  in  Circular  Saws,  Brazing  Band- 
Saws,  Saw  Sharpening,  Oiling  Tools,  To  Mark  Tools,  Varnish  for  Tools, 
Boiler  Incrustation,  Non-Conducting  Coverinirs  for  Steam  Pipes,  To 
Harden  Wood  Pulleys,  To  Prevent  Belts  Sliiipiiiir.  Hiisjis.  Sott  Files,  Amal- 
gam Varnish,  Painting  and  Preserving  Iroiiwdrk.  Prei)arin<r  Soft  Solder, 
To  Clean  Silver  Filigree.  Bronzing  on  Metal.  Polishing  Metals,  Imitation 
Marble,  To  Polish  Marble.  To  Clean  Marble,  To  Remove  Stains  from 
Marble.  To  Clean  Pictures,  Cleaning  Varnished  Pictures.  Cleaning  En- 
gravings. To  Smooth  a  Damaged  Picture.  Embossed  Gilding  for  Illumin- 
ating, (Jold  for  Illuminating,  To  Stain  Horn  in  Imitation  of  Tortoise  Shell, 
To  Stain  Ivory  or  Bone  Red,  Black,  Green,  Blue,  Yellow.  To  Soften  Ivory, 
To  Bleach  Ivory.  Artificial  Ivory.  Cement  for  Joining  Leather,  Cement  for 
Leather  and  Wood,  Cement  for  China,  Cement  for  Glass,  Cement  for 
Aquariums,  To  Restore  the  Elasticity  of  Caned  Chair  Bottoms,  Moths  in 
Carpets.  To  Destroy  Moths  in  Carpets.  To  Clean  Carpets.  To  Make  Parch- 
ment Transparent,  Tinting  on  Parchment,  India  Ink  Running,  Erasing 
India  Ink,  To  Make  Carbon  Paper,  Removing  Oil  Stains  from  Tiles,  To 
Polish  Floors,  Black  Wax,  (Jreen  Wax,  To  Polish  Tortoise  Shell  or  Horn, 
To  Clean  Looklng-Glasses,  To  Remove  Ink  Stains,  To  Remove  Stains  from 
Wood.  To  Clean  Velvet,  To  Remove  Paint  or  Slain  from  Wood,  To  Re- 
move Varnish  from  Wood,  Tesis  for  (Jildin-.'.  Anli-Atlrition.  To  Remove 
Grease  from  Cloth.  Putty.  How  to  Boil  Linseed-Oil.  Mordants  for  Staining 
Wood,  I'icture  Frames.  Varnish  for  Tools,  Painlliii:  on  Zinc.  Violin  Var- 
nish, Staining  Beech,  Staining  Mahogany.  Bronzing  Inlaid  Work,  Black 
Stain,  Brown  Stain,  Red  Stain,  Walnut  Stain.        -    ' 128 


PKACTIOAL  INFORMATION 

FOR    CABINET-MAKERS,   UPHOLSTERERS   AND 
FURNITURE    MEN. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    CABINET-MAKING. 

HE  general  term  cabinet-making  is  the  art  of  making  all 
such  parts  of  the  furniture  of  a  dwelling-house  as  are 
made  of  wood,  together  with  the  art  of  chair-making, 
etc.,  antl  in  order  to  arrive  at  any  degree  of  perfection,  the  knowl- 
edge of  designing,  carving,  modelling,  etc.,  is  requisite. 

It  has  also  been  supposed  that  a  knowledge  of  geometry,  and 
particularly  of  that  portion  of  it  which  treats  of  the  description  of 
curved  lines,  is  of  great  use  to  the  cabinet-maker;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  a  knowledge  of  perspective,  and  of  a  few  simple 
methods  of  drawing  common  curves,  geometry  may  be  dispensed 
with,  though  it  would  be  better  to  possess  it. 

The  best  advice  we  can  give  the  cabinet-maker,  in  acquiring  a 
graceful,  easy,  and  free  method  of  drawing,  is,  to  draw  as  much 
from  nature,  or  from  good  casts,  as  possible.  It  is  not  of  ma- 
terial consequence  whether  vegetable  or  animal  forms  be  drawn, 
but  a  mixture  of  both  is  desirable,  as  they  have  very  distinct 
characters,  which  will  be  easily  traced  in  attempting  to  delineate 
them. 

General    Remarks    on    Designs    for    Cabinet 

Work. — In  design,  tlie  central  or  principal  part  of  the  object  re- 
quires most  notice.     The  other  parts  should  be  so  far  subordinate 


10  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MARERS, 

to  it  as  not  to  distract  the  attention  from  the  centre;  and  yet  they 
should  be  so  united  in  harmony  with  it  as  to  be  obviously  essential 
to  complete  the  design. 

The  connection  between  the  principal  and  the  inferior  portions 
of  the  designs  should  be  preserved  by  the  continuance  of  some  of 
the  leading  lines  of  the  principal  part  to  the  inferior  ones ;  and, 
whether  these  lines  be  straight  or  curved,  they  should  never  be  so 
far  interrupted  by  ornament  as  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  or  not 
they  are  continued ;  and,  as  the  idea  of  firmness  or  stability  is  a 
necessary  accompaniment  of  good  taste  in  the  design  of  furniture, 
the  leading  lines  of  the  principal  part  of  the  design  should  descend 
in  such  a  manner  to  the  base  as  to  give  an  idea  of  firmiTess,  as  far 
as  the  nature  of  the  thing  requires  it. 

Proportion,  as  it  depends  on  the  relative  magnitude  of  parts,  is, 
sometimes,  wholly  left  to  the  good  taste  of  the  designer ;  and,  when 
cases  occur  where  it  is  within  his  i)ower,  one  part  in  a  design  must 
form  the  principal  object,  and  ought  not  to  have  a  rival  in  magni- 
tude ;  also,  when  the  piece  of  furniture  is  seen  in  its  best  position,  this 
principal  part  should  be  as  near  the  centre  of  tlie  \\  hole  as  possible. 

The  principal  part  of  a  design  should  be  sufficiently  prominent 
for  the  eye  to  pass  from  it  to  the  whole,  or  the  reverse,  without 
perceiving  the  change  of  magnitude  to  be  abrupt ;  and  the  same 
remark  applies  to  the  relation  of  the  subordinate  parts  of  the  design 
to  the  principal  one. 

If  this  attention  be  given  to  the  proportion  of  the  parts  so  that 
the  eye  may  pass  from  the  consideration  of  one  to  another,  and  not 
feel  the  change  abrupt,  the  design  will  be  pleasing. 

If  too  small  a  proportion  be  assigned  to  the  principal  part,  the 
design  will  be  flat  and  unmeaning.  If  the  proportion  be  too  large, 
the  whole  will  be  absorbed  in  the  part,  as  a  modern  mansion  is  not 
unfrequently  all  jiortico.  A  due  proportion  of  the  principal  part  to 
the  whole  gives  boldness  and  propriety. 

Richness  is  produced  by  introducing  as  much  ornament  as  the 
object  will  bear,  without  destroying  the  relation  between  the  plain 
and  ornamental  ])arts;  a  design,  overcharged  with  ornament,  be- 
comes frittered,  and  wants  both  variety  and  repose. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MIX  11 

The  opposite  quality  to  richness  is  meagrcness,  or  a  deficiency  of 
ornament;  and  want  of  attention  to  its  proportions.  Between  the 
extremes  of  overcharging  and  meagreness  an  immense  variety  of 
degrees  of  combination  of  ornamented  with  j^lain  surfaces  may  be 
selected. 

When  the  ornament  consists  of  moulded  work  only,  the  piece  of 
furniture  is  termed  plain ;  but  in  rich  furniture  the  combined  effect 
of  moulded  and  carved  work  is  necessary.  In  either  species,  the 
proportions  of  the  ornamental  and  plain  parts  to  each  other  should 
be  regulated  by  like  principles  as  the  magnitude  of  the  parts. 

Colored  Woods,  Metals,  Etc. — Sometimes  richness  of 
effect  is  no  further  attempted  than  is  obtained  by  the  natural  beauty 
of  the  wood  whicli  is  employed;  and  when  this  natural  beauty  is 
considerable,  this  simple  kind  of  furniture  is  most  highly  valued. 

But  wood,  so  fine  in  color  and  figure,  as  alone  to  give  richness 
of  effect  to  furniture,  is  very  rare,  and  still  more  frequently  de- 
fective; hence,  the  more  usual  mode  of  combining  different  colored 
woods,  or  of  metals  and  shells  with  woods,  require  some  degree  of 
attention.  The  prevailing  combinations  are  formed  by  colored 
bands,  lines,  and  ornaments  of  wood,  or  by  lines,  beads,  or  orna- 
ments of  brass ;  the  brass  being  in  many  instances  cut  into  beautiful 
forms  and  further  embellished  by  engraved  lines  on  its  surface. 

The  circumstances  to  be  attended  to  in  forming  these  combina- 
tions are  harmony  of  color,  due  proportion  of  the  colored  parts  to 
one  another,  and  relief  by  contrast, 

Much  depends  on  the  color  of  the  principal  mass  of  the  piece  of 
work,  which  we  call  the  predominating  color.  If  this  color  be  rich, 
very  little  variety  of  other  colors  should  be  added.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  the  predominating  color  be  light  and  delicate,  it  will  bear  to 
be  enlivened  and  supported  by  contrast  with  fine  lines  or  borders 
of  an  opposing  color  :  taking  care  that  the  mass  of  opposing  colors 
be  so  small  as  not  to  produce  opposition  instead  of  contrast ;  for 
contrast  skilfully  managed,  gives*  force  and  lustre  to  the  ground, 
while  opposition  destroys  even  its  natural  beauty. 

Framing. — Framing,   in    cabinet-making,   requires  the  same 


12  PRACTICAL    INFORMA'l  IO.\    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

precautions  as  in  joinery,  when  it  is  required  to  form  large  surfaces, 
for,  owing  to  shrinkage,  and  warping  of  wood,  large  even  surfaces 
can  be  formed  only  by  means  of  panelling. 

The  width  of  the  style  of  a  frame  should  be  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  width  of  a  compartment  of  the  frame;  the  tenons  should  be 
one-fourth  of  the  thickness  of  the  framing,  and  the  width  of  a 
tenon  not  more  than  tive  times  its  thickness. 

But,  where  surfaces  of  considerable  width  are  to  be  formed  with- 
out an  appearance  of  framing,  whether  those  surfaces  are  to  be 
veneered  or  not,  we  should  avoid  framing  them  with  other  pieces 
where  the  grain  of  the  wood  is  in  the  contrary  direction,  for  the  dif- 
ference of  the  shrinkage  of  the  two  ways  of  the  wood  is  so  con- 
siderable, that  it  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  stand  without  either 
warping  or  splitting  when  confined  .  Where  warping  is  to  be  pre- 
vented, we  strongly  recommend  that  holes  should  be  bored 
through,  and  strong  iron  wires  inserted,  at  short  distances  apart, 
across  the  piece.  These  would  act  as  clamps  in  preventing  warp- 
ing, and,  at  the  same  time,  would  not  be  affected  by  the  shrinkage 
in  width. 

Angles  are  formed  in  various  ways,  depending  chiefiy  on  the  ob- 
ject of  the  work.  External  angles  of  mouldings  are  either  simply 
mitred  or  rebated,  or  both  rebated  and  mitred  together.  Internal 
angles  are  generally  grooved  together,  with  the  outer  edges  mitred. 
Where  the  front  edge  only  is  to  be  mitred,  a  dovetail  groove  is 
made,  and  rather  narrower  at  the  back  than  at  the  front,  so  that 
the  tongue  tightens  as  it  is  driven  in. 

When  a  strong  firm  connection  is  wanted,  and  the  wood  is  to  be 
joined  end  to  end,  dovetailing  is  to  be  jireferred.  When  the  dove- 
tails are  not  to  appear,  they  may  be  formed  by  the  method  called 
lap-dovetailing;  and,  when  the  dovetails  are  cut  through,  it  be- 
comes the  kind  used  to  join  the  angle  l)etween  the  front  and  end 
of  a  drawer.  When  a  joint  is  to  appear  as  if  it  were  mitred,  the 
method  of  dovetailing  employed  is  called  mitre-dovetailing.  The 
apparent  edges  are  in  this  case  always  mitred  to  a  depth  of  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch.  There  is  also  the  method  of  joining  by  keys; 
the    jiarts  being    neatly  mitred,  then    saw-kerfs  are  to  be  made  for 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  13 

the  slips  of  wood  called  keys,  which  are  to  be  inserted  with  glue 
when  the  joint  is  put  together. 

Drawers  are  mostly  dovetailed  together,  but  variously  made  in 
other  respects.  Well-seasoned  wood  should  always  be  used,  as 
otherwise  the  drawers  are  liable  to  break  at  the  joints;  the  tenons 
should  always  be  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the  wood.  In 
mortising,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  mortise  and  tenon  are  neatly 
fitted,  neither  too  loose  or  too  tight,  and  the  parts  well  glued  when 
put  together. 

Veneering,  Banding,  etc. — Veneering  is  the  method  of 
covering  an  inferior  wood  with  a  surface  of  a  very  superior  kind,  so 
that  the  parts  of  the  article  of  furniture  thus  manufactured  which 
meet  the  eye  appear  to  the  same  advantage  as  if  the  whole  work 
were  of  the  best  description.  If  this  be  well  performed,  it  is  very 
durable,  looks  well  to  the  last,  and  is  attainable  at  an  expense  con- 
siderably less  than  a  similar  article  would  cost  if  manufactured  of 
the  same  wood  throughout,  but  of  an  inferior  quality. 

The  principal  requisite  to  ensure  success  in  veneering,  is  to  select 
well-seasoned  wood  for  the  ground,  and  to  use  the  best  and  strongest 
glue. 

Veneers  are  worked  either  by  a  veneering  hammer  or  by  cauls. 
In  veneering  by  the  hammer,  the  ground  should  be  warmed  by  the 
fire,  and  the  outside  of  the  veneer  wetted  with  warm  water  or  thin 
glue,  with  a  sponge,  and  the  side  to  be  laid  covered  with  a  coat  of 
thin  glue  and  warmed  at  the  fire ;  the  veneer  should  be  quickly  laid 
on  the  ground  and  worked  with  the  hammer,  backwards  and  for- 
wards, till  neither  air  or  glue  will  come  out.  Veneering  with  the 
hammer  is  preferable  when  the  veneers  are  straight  and  even,  but 
as  that  is  seldom  the  case,  work  is  generally  done  with  a  caul. 

A  caul  is  made  of  solid  wood,  shaped  to  the  surface  to  be  ve- 
neered ;  it  should  be  well  heated,  then  oiled  and  greased ;  it  is 
screwed  down  upon  the  veneer,  and  the  heat  and  pressure  sends 
out  the  glue,  causing  the  veneer  to  bed  close  to  the  ground.  The 
veneers  should  be  of  an  even  thickness  when  worked  by  a  caul, 
otherwise  the  glue  will  collect,  and  the  work  is  liable  to  blister ;  it 
should  not  dry  too  quickly. 


14  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

To  Raise  Old  Voneers. — In  repairing  old  cabinets,  and 
other  furniture,  workffien  are  sometimes  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to 
get  rid  of  those  bhsters  which  appear  on  the  surface,  in  consequence 
of  the  glue  under  the  veneer  failing  or  causing  the  veneer  to  separ- 
ate from  the  ground  in  patches;  and  these  blisters  are  frequently  so 
situated,  that,  without  separating  the  whole  veneer  from  the  ground, 
it  is  impossible  to  introduce  any  glue  between  them  to  relay  it ;  the 
great  difficulty  in  this  case  is  to  separate  the  veneer  from  the  ground 
without  injuring  it,  as  it  adheres  in  many  places  too  fast  to 
separate  without  breaking  it.  We  will  here,  therefore,  show  how 
this  operation  may  be  performed  without  difficulty,  and  the  veneer 
preserved  perfectly  whole  and  uninjured,  ready  for  relaying  as  a 
new  piece.  First  wash  the  surface  with  boiling  water,  and  with  a 
coarse  cloth  remove  dirt  or  grease ;  then  place  it  before  the  fire,  or 
heat  it  with  a  caul;  oil  its  surface  with  common  linseed  oil,  place  it 
again  to  the  fire,  and  the  heat  will  make  the  oil  penetrate  quite 
through  the  veneer  and  soften  the  glue  underneath  ;  then  whilst 
hot  raise  the  edge  gently  with  a  chisel,  and  it  will  separate  com- 
pletely from  the  ground  ;  be  careful  not  to  use  too  great  force,  or 
you  will  spoil  your  work;  again,  if  it  should  get  cold  during  the 
operation,  apply  more  oil,  and  heat  it  again ;  repeat  this  process  till 
you  have  entirely  separated  the  veneer,  then  wash  off  the  old  glue, 
and  proceed  to  lay  it  again  as  a  new  veneer. 

Banding  is  a  term  applied  to  a  narrow  strip  of  veneer  used  as  a 
border,  or  part  of  a  border,  either  to  a  large  veneer  or  to  solid 
wood  ;  in  the  latter  case,  a  rebate  is  sunk  for  the  banding.  Band- 
ing is  of  three  kinds :  it  is  called  straight-banding  when  the  wood 
is  cut  lengthwise  of  the  grain  ;  cross-banding  when  the  wood  is  cut 
across  tlie  grain ;  and  feather-banding  when  cut  at  an  angle  be- 
tween the  two. 

Between  the  banding  and  the  central  part,  one  or  more  lines  are 
generally  inserted,  and  sometimes  a  narrower  band. 

The  joints  of  banding  should  be  as  well  matched  as  possible, 
both  in  respect  to  color  and  grain  ;  and,  excepting  the  mitre- 
joints,  it  is  an  advantage  to  make  the  joints  at  the  veins  of  the 
wood. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  15 

Inlaying,  etc.,  etc. — inlaying  is  an  expensive  method  of 
ornamenting  furnitme  with  fancy  woods,  metals,  shells,  etc.,  and  if 
not  well  executed  is  unsightly  and  liable  to  frequent  breakage.  It 
is  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  about  the 
i6th  century;  it  was  revived  about  the  end  of  the  17th  century  in 
France,  but  met  with  little  encouragement,  though  practiced  by 
some  eminent  artists — amongst  the  most  famous  for  tlie  excellence 
and  extent  of  his  works  was  one  Boalle,  or  Buhl,  from  whence  we 
take  the  name  of  Buhl-work.  It  has  been  much  in  use  in  England,, 
France  and  America  during  the  last  twenty  years,  to  form  orna- 
mental  borders,  chess  tables,  etc. 

In  this  art  the  part  for  the  ornament  and  that  for  the  ground  are 
glued  together,  and  the  design  being  drawn  upon  one,  both  are  at 
once  cut  through  by  a  very  fine  species  of  bow-saw.  Thus,  there 
are  four  parts  obtained,  which,  being  put  together  in  two,  the  one 
is  the  ornament  designed  in  its  proper  ground ;  and  the  remainder 
of  the  ground,  combined  with  the  remainder  of  tlie  ornament,  gives 
another  ])attern  called  the  reverse. 

The  plates  of  brass  or  other  metal  should  be  of  the  usual  thickness 
of  a  veneer,  or  as  thin  as  can  be  conveniently  worked,  and  made 
rough  on  both  sides  with  a  coarse  file,  or  toothing  plane.  The 
veneers  of  wood  or  other  matter  to  be  combined  with  them,  should 
also  be  toothed ;  and,  both  the  plates  and  veneers  being  warmed, 
first  pass  a  coat  of  glue  over  one  of  the  metal  plates  and  cover  it 
with  a  thin  sheet  of  paper,  then  coat  the  paper  with  glue,  and  cover 
it  with  the  veneer.  Place  them  between  two  smooth  and  even 
boards,  and  let  them  be  kept  together  either  by  a  screw-press  or  by 
hand-screws,  and  remain  till  dry ;  they  will  then  be  found  to  ad- 
here together  with  sufficient  firmness  for  cutting  to  the  pattern. 

The  pattern  should  be  drawn  on  the  veneer,  or  if,  from  the  color, 
it  should  not  be  sufficiently  distinct,  a  piece  of  paper  may  be  pasted 
on  the  veneer,  and  after  it  is  dry  the  design  may  be  drawn  upon  it. 
The  lines  of  the  pattern  should  be  cut  with  a  bow-saw  having  a 
very  thin  and  narrow  blade ;  such  a  saw  may  be  made  of  part  of  a 
watch-spring,  and  the  bow  or  the  stretcher  of  the  saw  is  required  to 
be  at  such  a  distance  from  the  blade  as  will  admit  the  latter  to  turn 


1 6  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

and  follow  the  lines  of  the  pattern  in  any  direction.  The  frame  of 
the  saw  should  be  as  light  as  possible.  Where  tlie  pattern  does 
not  in  any  place  approach  the  edge,  a  small  hole  must  be  made  for 
inserting  the  saw ;  and  it  is  usual  to  saw  upwards,  that  mode  of  saw- 
ing rendering  it  more  easy  to  follow  the  lines  correctly.  When  the 
whole  of  the  pattern  is  cut  out,  the  veneer  or  shell  may  be  separ- 
ated from  tlie  metal  by  exposing  them  to  steam,  or  to  warm  water. 

The  next  object  is  to  join  the  parts  so  as  to  produce  two  com- 
plete ornaments ;  the  one  composed  of  veneer  inlaid  with  metal, 
the  other  of  metal  inlaid  with  veneer.  For  this  purpose,  on  a  plain 
surface,  place  a  piece  of  paper  of  sufficient  size,  and  the  veneer 
upon  it,  then  with  strong  glue  insert  the  metal  part  in  the  veneer, 
and  rub  it  well  down  with  the  veneering-hammer  and  glue ;  next 
cover  the  whole  with  another  piece  of  paper,  and  place  it  between 
two  plain  boards,  which  had  been  previously  well  warmed  and 
rubbed  with  tallow,  and  screw  or  press  them  togetlier.  If  tliis  be 
properly  done,  the  work  will  separate  from  the  boards  when  dry ; 
and,  the  paper  being  removed,  it  may  be  laid  in  its  place  as  a 
veneer;  but  a  caul  is  usually  employed  in  preference  to  the  ham- 
mer. The  reverse  pattern,  it  is  obvious,  should  be  prepared  for  lay- 
ing in  the  same  manner. 

The  process  is  the  same  wliether  metal  and  wood  or  metal  and 
tortoiseshell,  or  two  woods  of  different  colors  be  used. 

Inlaying  with  Shaded  Wood.— Having   shown   the 

methods  of  cutting  out  and  veneering,  we  need  now  only  show  the 
method  used  to  produce  tliat  shady  brown  edge,  on  works  inlaid 
with  white  holly,  and  which,  when  well  executed,  lias  a  very  pleas- 
ing and  ornamental  effect;  the  method  is  as  follows: — 

Into  a  shallow  iron  or  tin  pot,  put  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fine 
dry  sand,  to  be  level  with  the  top  edge  of  it ;  place  it  on  the  fire 
till  it  is  quite  hot,  then  having  your  veneer  cut  out  to  the  required 
pattern,  dip  the  edges  into  the  hot  sand,  and  let  them  remain  till 
the  heat  has  made  them  quite  brown  ;  but  be  careful  not  to  burn 
them;  it  is  best  to  bring  them  to  a  proper  color  by  repeatedly  re- 
newing the  operation,  than  all  at  once,  as  you  then  do  not  injure 
the  texture  of  the  wood,  and  by  immersing  more  or  less  of  the  edge 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FUKNllURE    MEN.  1 7 

you  produce  a  shaded  appearance  to  your  satisfaction.  1  would 
here  recommend  the  workman,  previous  to  beginning  the  operation, 
to  have  his  pattern  before  him  shaded  with  umber,  or  any  brown 
color,  in  those  parts  that  the  wood  is  to  be  stained,  as  he  then  will 
be  enabled,  as  he  proceeds,  to  copy  the  various  shades  of  the  pat- 
tern, for  the  wood  when  once  shaded  cannot  be  altered ;  and  as 
much  of  the  beauty  of  this  work  depends  on  a  proper  judgment  in 
placing  your  shadows,  it  is  best  always  to  have  a  guide  to  go  by, 
that  we  may  produce  the  best  possible  effect.  Sometimes  it  is 
requisite  to  give  a  shadow  in  the  centre,  and  not  on  the  edge  of 
your  wood,  and  as  this  cannot  be  done  by  dipping  it  in  the  sand, 
you  must  do  it  by  taking  up  a  little  of  the  hot  sand  and  sprinkhng 
it  or  heaping  it  up  on  those  parts  required  to  be  darkened,  letting 
it  remain  a  short  time,  then  sliaking  it  off,  and,  if  necessary,  apply 
more  where  the  color  is  not  deep  enough. 

To  Imitate  Inlaying  of  Silver  Strings,  etc.— This 

process  is  sometimes  employed  in  the  stocks,  etc.,  of  pistols,  and  if 
well  executed  has  a  very  good  effect;  carefully  draw  your  pattern 
upon  the  work,  and  then  engrave,  or  cut  away  the  different  lines 
with  sharp  gouges,  chisels,  etc.,  so  as  to  appear  clean  and  even, 
taking  care  to  cut  them  deep  enough,  and  rather  under,  like  a 
dovetail,  to  secure  the  composition  afterwards  to  be  put  in  the 
channels.  The  composition  to  resemble  silver  may  be  made  as 
follows :  take  any  quantity  of  the  purest  and  best  grain  tin,  melt  it 
in  a  ladle  or  other  convenient  receptacle,  add  to  it,  while  in  fusion, 
the  purest  quicksilver,  stirring  it  to  make  it  incorporate;  when  you 
have  added  enough,  it  will  remain  in  a  stiff  paste ;  if  too  soft,  add 
more  tin,  and  if  not  sufficiently  fluid  add  quicksilver;  grind  this 
composition  on  a  marble  slab,  or  in  a  mortar,  with  a  little  size,  and 
fill  up  the  cuttings  or  grooves  in  your  work,  as  you  would  with  a 
piece  of  jjutty;  let  it  remain  some  hours  to  dry,  when  you  may 
polish  it  off  with  the  palm  of  your  hand,  and  it  will  appear  as  if  your 
work  was  mlaid  with  silver.  Instead  of  tin  you  may  make  a  paste 
of  silver  leaf  and  quicksilver,  and  proceed  as  above  directed ;  you 
may  also,  for  the  sake  of  variety  in  your  work,  rub  in  wax  of  dif- 
ferent colors,  and  having  levelled  the  surface  and  cleaned  ofif  your 


1 8  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

work,  hold  it  at  a  moderate  distance  from  the  fire,  which  will  give 
your  strings  a  good  gloss. 

Carving,  Reeding,  etc.— in  carving,  the  quality  of  the 
wood  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  It  should  be  free  from  cracks, 
knots,  etc.,  and  as  even  in  its  texture  as  possible,  and,  above  all, 
well  seasoned. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  draw  your  pattern  on  the  wood 
in  its  proper  proportions ;  this  is  called  boasting,  and  in  it  consists 
the  chief  art  of  carving,  as  he  who  is  the  best  skilled  in  drawing, 
has  the  best  idea  of  the  quantity  of  projection  that  should  be  given 
to  the  respective  parts,  to  accord  with  the  given  design.  After 
making  out  the  sketch,  the  carver  has  to  shape  the  outline  with 
saws  or  gouges,  and  then  make  out  the  prominences  of  each  part 
when  necessary  or  proper,  by  gluing  on  pieces  of  wood  for  that 
purpose.  The  roughly-formed  pieces  are  fixed  for  carving,  and,  in 
some  cases,  this  is  done  by  gluing  them  to  a  board,  with  paper  in- 
serted between,  to  enable  the  carver  to  take  the  carving  off  with 
more  ease  when  it  is  finished.  When  the  work  is  properly  fixed, 
the  carver  proceeds  to  place  his  gouges;  and,  by  a  judicious 
choice  of  such  kinds  only  as  will  suit  the  turn  of  the  parts  in  boast- 
ing, endeavors  not  to  have  more  than  he  can  use  without  confusion. 

The  principal  lines  of  the  whole  are  then  formed,  so  as  to  be  a 
sufficient  guide  to  finishing,  when  it  is  completed  with  gouges  and 
cutting  tools  of  various  kinds. 

The  union  of  carved  and  turned  work  has  almost  always  a  beau- 
tiful effect ;  but,  in  producing  richness  with  the  smallest  degree  of 
labor,  the  combination  may  be  carried  to  a  great  extent. 

Reeding  is  a  kind  of  ornament  much  in  use  in  all  jiarts  of  turned 
work.  It  is  far  better  than  fluting  or  cabling,  for  it  has  a  bolder 
effect  in  small  work  than  in  fluting.  When  reeding  is  introduced  on 
flat  surfaces,  there  should  always  be  an  odd  number,  as  3,  5,  7,  etc., 
the  centre  one  being  a  trifle  bolder  in  table  legs,  bed  pillars,  etc. 

Moulding  Ornaments,  Figures,  etc.,  in  Imita- 
tion of  Carving. — To  avoid  the  exi)ense  of  carving  in  wood, 
several  attempts  have  been  made  to  cast  figures  and  ornaments  to 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  I9 

resemble  wood.  Tlie  most  approved  process  we  here  present  our 
readers.  It  was  invented  by  M.  Lenorniand,  and  rewarded  at  the 
Exposition  of  French  Products,  in  1823. 

Make  a  very  clear  gkie  with  two  parts  of  Flanders  glue,  and  one 
part  of  isinglass,  by  dissolving  the  two  kinds  separately  in  a  large 
quantity  of  water,  and  mix  them  together  after  they  have  been 
strained  through  a  piece  of  fine  linen,  to  separate  the  filth  and  he- 
trogeneous  parts  which  could  not  be  dissolved.  The  quantity  of 
water  cannot  be  fixed,  because  all  kinds  of  glue  are  not  homo- 
geneous, so  that  some  require  more  and  some  less;  but  the  proper 
degree  of  liquidity  may  be  known  by  suffering  the  mixed  glue  to 
become  perfectly  cold  ;  it  must  then  barely  form  a  jelly.  If  it 
happens  that  it  is  still  liquid  when  cold,  a  little  of  the  water  must 
be  evaporated  by  exposing  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  contained  to 
heat.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  has  too  much  consistence,  a  little 
warm  water  must  be  added.  The  glue,  thus  prepared,  is  to  be 
heated  till  you  can  scarcely  endure  your  finger  in  it;  by  this  opera- 
tion a  little  water  is  evaporated,  and  the  glue  acquires  more  con- 
sistence. Then  take  raspings  of  wood  or  sawdust,  sifted  through  a 
fine  hair-sieve,  and  with  the  glue  form  it  into  a  paste,  which  must 
be  put  into  plaster  or  sulphur  moulds,  after  they  have  been  well 
rubbed  over  with  linseed  or  nut-oil,  in  the  same  manner  as  when 
plaster  is  to  be  moulded.  Care  must  be  taken  to  press  the  parts 
into  the  mould  with  the  hand,  in  order  that  the  whole  may  acquire 
the  perfect  form ;  then  cover  it  with  an  oiled  board,  place  over  it 
a  weight,  and  suffer  it  in  that  maimer  to  dry.  The  drying  may  be 
hastened  a  little,  and  rendered  more  complete,  by  a  stove.  When 
the  casting  is  dry  remove  the  rough  parts,  and  if  any  irregularities 
remain  behind  they  must  be  smoothed,  and  then  the  ornament  may 
be  affixed  with  glue  to  the  article  for  which  it  is  intended. 

It  may  be  varnished  or  polished  in  the  usual  manner.  This 
operation  is  exceedingly  easy ;  nothing  is  necessary  but  moulds,  and, 
with  a  little  art,  the  ornament  may  be  infinitely  varied. 

The  species  of  ornament  called  Composition  Omame?it  is  used 
where  the  mass  is  not  great,  and  the  surface  can  be  covered  with 
gilding  or  paint,  and  is  not  exposed  to  wear.      Sunk  roses,  and 


20  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Other  ornaments,  whicli  are  protected  by  projections  or  mouldings, 
may  be  done  in  this  manner,  and  it  may  be  successfully  applied  to 
all  objects  beyond  the  reach  of  accident. 

The  comi)Osition  is  made  as  follows: — Mix  14  pounds  of  glue, 
7  i)Ounds  of  rosin,  y2  pound  of  pitch,  2^4  pints  of  linseed  oil,  and  5 
pints  of  water  (more  or  less,  according  to  llie  quantity  required). 
Boil  the  whole  together,  well  stirring  till  dissolved;  adtliiig  as  much 
whiting  as  will  render  it  of  a  hard  consistency  ;  then  press  it  into 
vour  mould,  which  has  been  ])rc\iously  oiled  with  sweet  oil. 

No  niore  should  be  mixed  than  can  be  used  before  it  becomes 
sensibly  hard,  as  it  will  require  steaming  before  it  can  be  again 
used. 

Composition  ornaments  should  be  well  glued  on,  and,  in  some 
cases,  they  will  recjuire  to  be  further  secured  by  needle-points  or 
brads. 

Composition  ornaments  are  chiefly  used  for  picture  and  glass 
frames;  we  have  also  seen  them  employetl  for  ornaments  on  the 
top  of  oak  book-cases,  and,  when  grained  by  a  good  ])ainter,  they 
answer  as  well  as  when  carved  in  wood. 


FINISHING. 

Wood  Finishing  is  the  process  of  applying  to  the  surface 
after  it  has  been  prepared,  by  filling  and  smoothing,  or  otherwise,  a 
thin  coating  of  varnish  or  other  substance,  to  render  it  durable,  en- 
hance its  beauty  or  change  its  a]ji)earance.  There  are  numerous 
methods  of  finishing,  and  a  \nriety  of  materials  are  used;  the  va- 
rieties of  varnish  being  the  i)rincipal.  The  distinctive  qualities  of 
these  varieties  are  treated  under  their  j. roper  headings. 

In  their  natural  state  all  woods  are  more  or  less  porous,  consist- 
ing of  bundles  of  hard  fibres,  with  interstices  filled  with  a  softer  sub- 
stance. 'I'hese  ronstitute  the  grain,  and  ns  the  liard  or  soft  parts 
predominate  the  wood  is  said  to  be  h;ird,  fine,  or  close-grained,  or 
soft  and  open-grained.  'I  o  fill  these  softer  parts,  or  pores,  and  give 
to  the  whole  an  even,  uniform  surface,  hard,  and  capable  of  a  bril- 
liant ])olish,  is  the  object  of  the  finishers'  art.     This   hard,  firm  sur- 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  21 

face  was  formerly  gained  by  the  successive  application  of  several 
coats  of  varnish,  at  least  three  preliminary  coats  being  required  to 
fill  the  pores;  the  inequalities  were  then  reduced  by  fine  sand  or 
glass-paper,  and  several  additional  coats  laid  on,  the  last,  after  be- 
coming thoroughly  hard,  being  polished  if  desired.  In  this  opera- 
tion, however,  a  great  quantity  of  varnish  is  absorbed  by  the  open 
pores  of  the  wood,  and  it  is  consequently  so  ex[)ensive  that  it  is 
now  seldom  used.  Recourse  is  therefore  had  to  various  plans  to 
render  the  wood  non -absorbent  before  applying  varnishes,  and  cer- 
tain couipountls  called  fillers  are  largely  used  for  this  i)urpose. 

Richness  of  eft'ect  may  be  gained  in  decorative  woodwork  by  using 
woods  of  different  tone,  such  as  amaranth  and  amboya,  or  inlaying 
and  veneering.  The  Hungarian  ash  and  French  walnut  afford  ex- 
cellent veneers,  especially  the  burls  or  gnarls.  A  few  useful  notes 
on  the  subject  are  given  by  a  recent  American  authority.  In  var- 
nishing, the  varnishes  used  can  be  toned  down  to  match  the  wood, 
or  be  made  to  darken  it,  by  the  addition  of  coloring  matters.  The 
])a  tented  preparations,  known  as  "  wood  fillers,"  are  prepared  in 
different  colors  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  surface  of  wood 
previous  to  the  varnishmg.  They  fill  up  the  pores  of  the  wood, 
rendering  the  surface  hard  and  smooth.  For  polishing  mahogany, 
walnut,  etc.,  the  following  is  recommended  :  Dissolve  beeswax  by 
heat  in  spirits  of  turpentine  until  the  mixture  becomes  viscid ;  then 
apply,  by  a  clean  cloth,  and  rub  thoroughly  with  a  flannel  or  cloth. 
A  common  mode  of  polishing  mahogany  is  by  rubbing  it  first  with 
linseed  oil,  and  then  by  a  cloth  dipped  in  very  fine  brickdust;  a 
good  gloss  may  also  be  produced  by  rubbing  with  linseed  oil,  and 
then  holding  trimmings  or  shavings  of  the  same  material  against 
the  work  in  the  lathe.  Glass-paper,  followed  by  rubbing,  also  gives 
a  good  lustre. 

Logwood,  lime,  brown  soft-soap,  dyed  oil,  sul|)hate  of  iron,  nitrate 
of  silver  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  carbonate  of  sodn,  bic-Jiromate 
and  i)ermanganate  of  potash,  and  other  alkaline  jireijarations,  are 
used  for  darkening  the  wood;  the  last  three  are  specially  recom- 
mended. The  solution  is  apphed  by  dissolving  one  ounce  of  the 
alkali  in    two  gills  of  boihng   water,  diluted  to  the  required  tone. 


22  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR   CABINET-MAKERS, 

The  surface  is  saturated  with  a  sponge  or  flannel,  and  immediately 
dried  with  soft  rags.  The  carbonate  is  used  for  dark  woods.  Oil 
tinged  with  rose  madder  may  be  applied  to  hard  woods  like  birch, 
and  a  red  oil  is  prepared  from  soaked  alkanet  root  in  linseed-oil. 
The  grain  of  yellow  pine  can  be  brought  out  by  two  or  three  coats 
of  japan,  much  diluted  with  turpentine,  and  afterwards  oiled  and 
rubbed.  To  give  mahogany  the  appearance  of  age,  lime  water 
used  before  oiling  is  a  good  plan.  In  staining  wood,  the  best  and 
most  transparent  effect  is  obtained  by  repeated  light  coats  of  the 
same.  For  oak  stain  a  strong  solution  of  oxalic  acid  is  employed; 
for  mahogany,  dilute  nitrous  acid.  A  primary  coat  or  a  coat  of 
wood-fillers  is  advantageous.  For  mahogany  stains,  the  following 
are  given  :  2  oz.  of  dragon's  blood  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  recti- 
fied spirits  of  wine,  well  shaken,  or  raw  sienna  in  beer,  with  burnt 
sienna  to  give  the  required  tone;  for  darker  stains,  boil  half  a  pound 
of  madder  and  2  oz.  of  logwood  chips  in  one  gallon  of  water,  and 
brush  the  decoction  while  hot  over  the  wood;  w'hen  dry,  paint 
with  a  solution  of  2  oz.  of  potash  in  one  quart  of  water.  A  solu- 
tion of  permanganate  of  potash  forms  a  rapid  and  excellent  brown 
stain. 

The  Processes.— Finishing,  although  comprehending  many 
minute  sub-divisions,  may  be  divided  into  four  principal  processes, 
/.  ^.,  "  Filling,"  "Varnishing,"  "Rubbing,"  and  "  Flowing,"  "Pol- 
ishing," etc.  Each  of  them  are  treated  at  length  in  their  proper 
order,  and  for  full  information  regarding  the  successive  operations, 
the  learner  must  refer  to  these  heads;  here  we  shall  give  a  gen- 
eral view  of  the  entire  operation  without  details.  The  process  de- 
scribed is  for  fine  work.  First  make  the  article  to  be  finished  quite 
clean  and  free  from  dust ;  then  api)ly  the  proper  filler  with  a  brush  ; 
rub  it  well  into  the  grain  with  excelsior  or  tow,  rubbing  across  the 
grain  when  practicable,  then  clean  all  the  surplus  filler  from  the  sur- 
face with  rags;  after  filling,  allow  the  article  to  stand  for  several 
hours,  during  which  time  the  filler  should  become  quite  hard  and 
dry.  Before  proceeding  to  apply  the  varnish,  if  necessary,  make 
the  surface  of  the  filler  quite  smooth  with  sand-paper;  then  apply 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  23 

a  coat  of  varnish,  allowing  it  to  get  quite  hard;  after  the  last  coat 
of  varnish,  with  fine  sand-paper,  santl-paper  the  surface  sufficiently 
to  make  it  entirely  smooth  and  remove  any  lumps  or  irregularities. 
The  number  of  coats  required  depends  greatly  upon  the  quality  of 
filler  used,  regarding  which  some  remarks  will  be  found  under  the 
head  of  Fillers.  It  is  said  that  with  some  fillers  one  coat  of  var- 
nish is  sufficient,  but  this  can  scarcely  be  the  case  with  fine  work, 
as  it  is  not  possible  for  one  coat  of  varnish  to  give  sufficient  body 
to  rub  a  four,  or  possibly  three  coats  are  more  desirable.  When 
the  last  coat  of  varnish  has  been  applied,  the  article  is  ready  for 
"  rubbing  "  with  pumice  stone,  moistened  with  linseed  oil  and  ap- 
plied with  a  bit  of  hair-cloth  or  coarse  rag.  This  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  the  varnish  perfectly  smooth  and  preparing  it  for 
the  polishing.  After  rul^bing,  if  a  dead  finish  is  desired,  the  work 
is  comi)lete,  but  the  body  of  the  work  is  generally  cleaned  uj)  with 
a  little  oil  well  rubbed  in,  which  gives  it  a  lustre,  afterward  rubbed 
with  a  cloth  dampened  with  alcohol,  which  removes  the  surplus  oil 
from  the  surface.  The  \eneered  panels  are  either  "flowed"  or 
"  polished,"  which  processes  are  described  under  these  heads. 


FILLING. 

Fillers. — These  compounds  play  a  very  important  part  in  the 
art  of  finishing,  not  only  in  the  great  economy  of  material  and  time 
required,  but  in  producing  a  handsomer  and  more  durable  finish 
than  possible,  except  at  great  cost,  without  them.  Oil  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  filler,  but  its  use  is  not  recommended  ;  applied  directly  to 
the  wood  its  effect  is  to  swell  the  fibres,  or  "raise  the  grain," 
which  remains  in  that  condition  until  the  oil  becomes  entirely  dry, 
or  disappears.  During  all  tliis  time  the  fibres  are  gradually  shrink- 
ing, and  consequendy  moving  or  checking  the  varnish.  The  quali- 
ties essential  to  a  good  filler  are :  that  it  shall  readily  enter  the 
porous  portion  of  the  wood,  and  shall  very  soon  harden  and  render 
the  wood  impervious  to  the  varnish,  which  should  lie  smoothly 
upon  the  surface,  giving  brilliancy  and  effect  to  the  natural  beauty 
of  the  wood;  that  it  shall  not  raise  the  grain  of  the  wood;  that  it 


24  PKACIICAL    IXP^ORMATION    FOR    CABINET- iMAK.tKS, 

shall  nut  change  the  color  of  the  wood.  'I'hese  conditions  are 
satisfactorily  filled  by  very  few  of  the  home-made  fillers  ordinarily 
used  in  shops,  and  while  we  give  a  number  of  receipts,  our  readers 
are  advised  that  they  will  obtain  better  satisfaction,  at  less  cost,  by 
purchasing  some  of  the  patent  fillers  now  coming  into  general  use, 
of  which  we  can  recommend  the  very  excellent  fillers  of  tne  Britlge- 
port  Wood  Finishing  Co.,  New  York,  and  J.  W.  Kenna  &  Co., 
Chicago.  In  these  fillers  very  little  oil  is  used  and  a  large  amount 
of  dryers,  so  that  the  wood  becomes  perfectly  dry  and  hard  in  a 
few  hours,  preventing  any  swelling  or  shrinking  of  the  fibres  of  the 
wood  after  the  varnish  is  apjilied.  The  following  fillers  should  be 
allowed  to  dry  until  quite  hard.  About  eight  hours  are  usually 
sufficient. 

Walnut  Filler.— For  Medium  and  Cheap  Work.— lo  lbs. 
bolted  English  whiting,  3  lbs.  dry  burnt  umber,  4  lbs.  Vandyke 
brown,  3  lbs.  calcined  plaster,  y^  lb.  Venetian  red,  i  gal.  boiled 
linseed  oil,  y^  gal.  spirits  turpentine,  i  quart  black  japan.  Mix 
well  and  apply  with  brusli;  rub  well  with  excelsior  or  tow,  clean  oft 
with  rags.  For  Imitation  Wax-Finish. — 5  lbs.  bolted  whitinc^, 
I  lb.  calcined  plaster,  6  ounces  calcined  magnesia,  i  ounce  dry 
burnt  umber,  i  ounce  trench  yellow,  i  quart  raw  linseed  oil, 
1  quart  benzine  spirits,  y^  pint  very  thin  white  shellac.  Mix  well 
and  apply  with  a  brush.  Rub  well  in  and  clean  off"  with  rags. 
Before  using  the  above  filling  give  the  work  one  coat  of  white  shel- 
lac. When  dry,  santl-paper  down  and  apply  the  filler.  For 
First-Class  Work.— 3  lbs.  burnt  umber  ground  in  oil,  i  lb.  burnt 
sienna  ground  in  oil,  i  quart  s]:)irits  turpentine,  1  pint  brown  japan. 
Mix  well  and  ai)ply  with  a  brush  ;  sand-paper  well ;  clean  off"  with 
tow  and  rags.     This  gives  a  Ix-autiful  chocolate  color  to  the  wood. 

Filler  for  Light  Woods.— 5  lbs.  bolted  English  whiting, 
3  lbs.  calcined  plaster,  '<  gallon  raw  linseed  oil,  i  quart  spirits  tur- 
pentine, I  quart  lnriwn  J-Tp;"!.  and  sufficient  iMencli  yellow  to  tinge 
the  while.  .Mix  \\,ll  .111. 1  apply  witji  a  l.iush.  rub  in  with  excelsior 
or  tow.  and  clejn  (.fi"  with  r,i-s.  AiioHicr. — 10  lbs,  bolted  English 
whiting,  5  lbs.  calcined  plaster,  i  lb.  rum  starch,  3  ounces  calcined 


i;PH()l..SI  LREKS    AND    FURNITURE    MKN.  25 

magnesia,  i  gallon  raw  linseed  oil,  i^  gallon  sjiirits  turpentine,  i 
quart  brown  japan,  2  ounces  Frencli  yellow.  Mix  well  and  apply 
with  brush,  rub  in  with  excelsior  or  tow,  anil  clean  oft' with  rags. 

Filler  for  Cherry. — 5  lbs.   bolted    English  whiting,  2  lbs. 

calcined  plaster,  i^4  ounces  dry  burnt  sienna,  i  ounce  Venetian 
red,  I  quart  boiled  linseed  oil,  i  pint  spirits  turpentine,  i  pint  brown 
jai)an.  Mix  well,  rub  in  with  excelsior  or  tow,  and  clean  oft"  with 
rags. 

Filler  for  Oak. — 5  lbs.  bolted  English  whiting,  2  lbs.  cal- 
cined i)lastL'r,  I  ounce  dry  burnt  sienna,  yi  ounce  dry  French 
yellow,  1  (juart  raw  linseed  oil,  i  pint  benzine  spirits,  ^  pint  white 
shellac.  Mix  well,  apply  with  brush,  rub  in  with  excelsior  or  tow, 
and  clean  off"  with  rags. 

Filler  for  Rosewood. — 6  lbs.  bolted  English  whiting,  2 
lbs.  calcined  plaster,  i  lb.  rose  pink,  2  ounces  Venetian  red,  y^  lb. 
Vandyke  brown,  ^2  lb.  brandon  red,  i  galbn  boiled  linseed  oil,  y^ 
gallon  spirits  turpentine,  i  quart  black  japan.  Mix  well,  apply 
with  brush,  rub  in  with  excelsior  or  tow,  and  clean  oft"  with  rags. 

Sizing. — Size  of  diff"erent  kinds  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  sur- 
face of  wood  to  prevent  absorption  of  the  varnish.  The  kind  of 
material  used  for  the  size  is  not  important,  the  object  being  only  to 
prevent  absorption  by  a  very  thin  coat  of  some  substance  not 
soluble  in  the  varnish.  For  dark-colored  woods,  thin  size,  made  by 
reducing  ordinary  glue  with  water,  is  generally  used  ;  but  for  lighter- 
colored  surfaces,  a  white  size  is  used,  which  is  prepared  by  boiling 
white  kid  or  other  leather,  or  parchment  cuttings,  in  water  for  a 
few  hours,  or  until  it  forms  a  thin  jellydike  substance,  which  is  re- 
duced with  water  to  a  thin  consistency,  and  used  in  a  tepid  state. 
Sometimes  solutions  of  isinglass  or  tragacanth  are  employed  in  like 
manner. 

Unlike  the  best  fillers,  sizes  of  any  kind  do  not  improve  the  finish, 
and  are  sometimes  a  ])Ositive  detriment  to  it.  They  are  used 
solely  as  an  economy  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  tlie  varnish  needed, 
and  their  use  is  not  recommended  for  the  best  work. 


26  PRACTICAL   INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

APPLICATION    OF   VARNISHES. 

PrekmiiKiry  to  aj)plying  the  varnish  the  pores  of  the  wood  should 
be  filled,  according  to  instructions  given  in  the  preceding  receipts. 
Sufficient  time  should  be  allowed  for  the  filler  to  become  perfectly 
hard,  and  if  any  lumps  or  inequalities  remain,  the  surface  should  be 
made  perfecdy  smooth  by  the  use  of  glass  paper.  All  dust,  si)ecks, 
etc.,  should  be  carefully  removed  by  the  brush  made  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  the  work  is  then  ready  for  the  varnish. 

Varnishes  of  all  kinds  should  be  uniformly  applied,  in  very  thin 
coats,  sparingly  upon  the  edges  and  angles,  where  the  varnish  is 
liable  to  accumulate.  In  first  placing  the  brush  on  the  surface,  it 
should  be  applied,  not  close  to  the  edge,  which  would  be  liable  to 
give  too  thick  a  coat  at  that  part,  but  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
edge,  and  the  strokes  of  the  brush  should  be  directed  towards  the 
ends  alternately,  with  steady  rapid  strokes,  and  only  very  moderate 
pressure.  If  the  surface  is  small,  the  whole  may  be  passed  over  in 
one  operation,  and  then  the  brush  may  be  returned  to  the  edge  at 
which  work  was  begun,  and  it  may  be  passetl  over  the  surface  a 
second  or  a  third  time,  to  distribute  the  varnish  uniformly,  and 
work  out  the  air  bubbles.  Sometimes,  in  small  surfaces,  the  second 
series  of  strokes  is  made  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  in  order  to  dis- 
tril)ute  the  varnish  more  equally,  and  the  third  is  laid  on  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  first ;  but  unless  this  is  done  expeditiously 
and  equally,  it  leaves  cross-lines,  which  mjure  the  appearance  of 
the  work. 

Large  surfaces  are  more  difficult,  as  the  varnish  thickens  too 
rapidly  to  allow  of  the  entire  surface  being  covered  at  one  opera- 
tion. They  must  therefore  either  be  worked  gradually  from  the 
one  edge  to  the  other,  as  in  laying  a  tint  of  water-color,  or  the  var- 
nish must  be  applied  upon  separate  portions  successively;  but  it  is 
rather  difficult  to  join  the  portions  without  leaving  irregular  marks. 
It  may,  however,  be  successfully  accomplished  by  thinning  off  the 
edge  with  light  strokes  of  the  l)rush  made  in  the  same  direction  as 
those  on  the  finished  i)ortion  ;  but  some  care  is  required  to  avoid 
disturbing  the  former  coat  while  it  is  still  soft  and  easily  acted  upon 
by  the  fresh  varnish.     In  the  same  manner,  in  laying  on  a  second  or 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN  27 

any  subsequent  coat  of  varnish,  care  must  be  taken  not  lo  continue 
the  appHcation  of  the  brush  sufficiently  long  to  disturb  the  previous 
coat,  which  is  speedily  softened  by  the  fresh  varnish ;  and  if  the 
application  of  the  brush  were  continued  too  long,  the  preceding 
coat  would  be  disturbed,  giving  to  the  work  an  irregular  or  chilled 
appearance.  A  sufficient  interval  of  time  should  be  allowed  be- 
tween each  coat  for  the  perfect  evaporation  of  the  solvent,  whether 
alcohol,  turi)entine  or  oil.  The  time  required  for  this  depends 
partly  upon  the  kind  of  varnish  employed,  and  partly  on  the  state 
of  the  atmosphere.  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  spirit  varnishes 
generally  require  from  two  to  three  hours  between  every  coat ;  tur- 
pentine varnishes  mostly  require  six  or  eight  hours;  and  oil  var- 
nishes still  longer — sometimes  as  much  as  twenty-four  hours.  But 
whatever  time  may  be  required,  the  second  layer  should  never  be 
added  until  the  first  is  permanently  hard ;  as  when  one  layer  is  de- 
fended from  the  air  by  a  seeond,  its  drying  is  almost  stopped,  and 
it  remains  soft  and  adhesive. 

In  applying  spirit  varnish,  some  little  tact  and  expedition  are 
necessary,  in  order  to  spread  the  varnish  uniformly  over  the  sur- 
face before  it  becomes  too  much  thickened  by  evaporation,  or  it 
will  exhibit  a  very  irregular  surface  when  finished.  If  the  surface 
does  not  exceed  a  few  inches  square,  no  material  difficulty  is  ex- 
perienced, as  the  whole  may  be  brushed  over  two  or  three  times 
before  the  varnish  becomes  too  thick ;  but  surfaces  containing  two 
or  three  square  feet  present  much  greater  difficulty,  as  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  varnish  should  be  sufficiently  worked  with  the  brush 
to  exclude  all  minute  air-bubbles,  which  would  spoil  the  appear- 
ance of  the  work,  and  can  seldom  be  entirely  removed  until  just 
before  the  varnish  is  becoming  too  thick  \.o  JJoiv  or  spread  uniformly 
after  the  brush  has  passed  over  it. 

Turpentine  and  oil  varnishes  are  applied  in  the  same  general 
manner  as  spirit  varnishes ;  but  as  they  dry  more  slowly,  more  time 
may  be  occupied  in  la)'ing  on  the  varnish,  and  therefore  large  sur- 
faces maybe  more  easily  and  uniformly  covered;  but  the  same 
precautions  with  respect  to  the  dryness  and  warmth  of  the  atmosphere 
«-re  likewise  desirable  when  it  is  wished  to  produce  a  brilliant  surface. 


28  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Every  precaution  should  also  be  taken  to  prevent  any  dust,  or 
loose  hairs  from  the  brush,  becoming  accidentally  attached  to  the 
varnish.  Should  this  occur  they  will  require  to  be  carefully  picked 
out  with  the  point  of  a  penknife  and  the  surface  of  the  varnish 
leveled  with  line  glass-paper,  prior  to  the  application  of  the  next 
coat. 

In  using  spirit  varnishes,  it  is  at  all  limes  of  the  first  importance 
that  particular  attention  should  be  given  to  doing  the  varnishing 
in  a  dry  atmosphere  ;  as  all  solutions  of  resins  in  alcohol  are  pre- 
cipitated by  the  addition  of  water,  not  only  as  visible  moisture,  but 
even  as  vapor,  wOiich  is  at  all  times  deposited  by  the  atmosphere 
at  a  reduced  temperature,  in  the  form  of  invisible  dew,  and  in  this 
state  it  precipitates  the  resin  in  the  thin  coat  of  varnish,  and  gives 
the  surface  a  milky,  clouded  or  opaque  appearance  when  the  var- 
nish is  said  to  be  chilled.  But  this  effect  is  fre(iuently  produced 
even  on  a  warm  and  apparently  fine  summer  day,  when  the  atmo- 
sphere happens  to  be  more  than  usually  charged  with  moisture. 
This  is  a  frequent  stumbling  block  in  varnishing,  and  is  only  to  be 
obviated  by  carrying  on  the  i)rocess  in  a  room  sufficiently  warmed 
to  keep  the  moisture  suspended  in  the  air  until  the  solvent  has 
completely  evaporated. 

Not  only  should  the  room  be  sufficiendy  heated,  but  all  currents 
of  cold  air  must  be  avoided,  as  cold  drafts  if  suftered  to  pass  over 
the  recently  varnished  surface,  are  quite  sufiicient  to  dull  the  var- 
nish wherever  they  extend.  AVhen  the  varnish  has  been  chilled, 
the  brilliancy  and  clearness  may  frequently  be  restored  by  giving 
the  chilled  surface  another  thin  coat  of  varnish,  taking  care  to 
avoid  the  causes  of  the  former  failure,  and  immediately  holding  the 
varnished  surface  at  a  moderate  distance  from  a  fire,  so  as  to  warm 
it  sufficiently  to  partially  re-dissolve  the  chilled  coat ;  but  care  is 
necessary  to  avoid  heating  the  varnish  so  much  as  to  raise  blisters, 
in  which  case  no  remedy  would  remain  but  to  scrape  off  the  entire 
coat. 

The  temperature  generally  preferred  for  the  varnish  room  is 
about  72  deg.  F.,  but  a  few  degrees  more  or  less  are  not  important. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  29 

Brushes  for  Varnishing. — For  si)iiit  vamislies,  camel's- 
hair  pencils  and  brushes  are  used,  the  sizes  of  which  vary  from  one- 
quarter  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  diameter,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  work.  When  the  surfaces  are  very  large,  flat  camel-hair 
brushes  are  used  ;  but  from  their  comparative  thinness  they  scarcely 
contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  varnish  to  preserve  the  brush  uni- 
formly charged  in  i)assing  over  a  large  surface.  Turjjentine  and 
oil  varnishes  require  less  delicacy;  and  flat  brushes,  made  of  fine 
soft  bristles,  are  generally  used,  or  sometimes  ordinary  painting 
brushes  are  employed,  but  they  are  rather  harsh,  and,  owing  to 
the  adhesion  of  the  varnish,  the  hairs  are  apt  to  be  loosened,  and 
come  out.  Brushes  should  always  be  kept  perfectly  soft  and  clean, 
and  therefore  should  never  be  laid  aside  when  through  work,  with- 
out cleaning.  For  this  purpose  turpentine  is  best ;  the  brushes  can 
either  be  washed  out  quite  clean  in  it,  dried  on  a  cloth,  and  laid 
aside,  or  the  bristles  can  be  partially  immersed  in  turpentine  and 
allowed  to  remain  in  it  until  wanted  for  use.  Warm  water  and 
soap  will  also  serve  to  clean  the  brushes.  If,  however,  the  brushes 
are  laid  aside  without  being  thoroughly  cleaned,  they  will  certainly 
be  ruined  by  the  hardening  of  the  varnish. 

Varnish  Pan. — This  can  be  procured  at  the  color  shops. 
It  is  constructed  of  tin,  with  a  false  bottom;  the  interval  between 
the  two  bottoms  is  filled  with  sand,  which  being  heated  over  the 
fire  keei)s  the  varnish  fluid,  and  it  flows  more  readily  from  the 
brush.  'I'here  is  a  tin  handle  to  it,  and  the  false  bottom  slopes 
from  one  end  to  the  other,  which  gives  sufficient  depth  when  the 
varnish  is  low.  It  should  also  have  a  wire  fixed  across  the  top  to 
wipe  the  brush  against.  An  ordinary  preserve  jar  is  frequently 
used  for  containing  the  varnish,  and  is  sufficiently  suitable;  but  it 
also  should  have  a  wire  or  string  stretched  across  the  top,  for  re- 
ducing the  quantity  of  varnish  taken  up  by  the  brush.  The  quan- 
tity of  varnish  poured  into  the  jar  should  be  sufficient  to  nearly 
cover  die  hairs  of  the  brush  in  order  to  keep  it  soft.  Too  small  a 
quantity  of  varnish  is  liable  to  thicken  rapidly  by  evaporation, 
which  should  at  all  times  be  prevented  as  far  as  possible,  by  keep- 
ing the  vessel  closely  covered  when  not  in  actual  use. 


30  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR   CABINET-MAKERS, 

RUBBING. 

This  part  of  the  finishing  process  is  that  which  gives  to  the  var- 
nish when  laid  upon  the  wood  a  degree  of  smootiiness  not  other- 
wise attainable ;  for  by  the  use  of  the  brush  alone,  minute  furrows 
and  ridges  are  left  upon  the  plastic  surface  of  the  varnish ;  and 
although  good  varnish  possesses  in  itself  a  higli  gloss,  the  gloss  is 
not  nearly  so  agreeable  to  the  eye  as  the  brilliant  polish,  of  which 
rubbing  is  the  preliminary.  The  reduction  of  these  ridges  and 
furrows  is  accomj^lished  by  means  of  finely-powdered  pumice-stone 
moistened  with  raw  linseed  oil,  applied  with  a  piece  of  hair-cloth 
or  other  coarse  and  fibrous  material.  For  rubbing  large  flat  sur- 
faces the  haircloth  is  sometimes  folded  over  a  block  of  convenient 
size,  but  this  is  not  practicable  for  articles  of  small  size  or  irregular 
shai)e.  In  rubbing,  considerable  force  must  be  used,  but  the  stroke 
should  be  steady  and  as  long  as  possible,  and  great  care  should  be 
taken  to  rub  the  surface  uniformly,  as  in  case  it  is  rubbed  unevenly 
the  varnish  is  liable  to  be  worn  away  quite  to  the  wood  in  some 
places,  and  the  perfect  smoothness  that  is  the  beauty  of  a  good  finish 
will  thus  be  impossible.  The  edges  especially  are  liable  to  be  rubbed 
bare,  and  should  be  carefully  treated.  The  crevices  and  hollows 
of  carvings  are  rubbed  by  means  of  hard  pointed  sticks  of  various 
convenient  sizes.  The  rubbing  should  be  continued  until  the  entire 
surface  apj)ears  perfectly  smooth  and  free  from  marks  of  any  kind. 
The  surplus  pumice-stone  and  oil  should  all  be  carefully  removed 
from  the  surface  by  means  of  rags,  and  the  work  may  then  be 
cleaned  up  with  a  little  sweet  oil  well  rubbed  in,  and  retouched 
with  a  cloth  slightly  damj^ened  in  alcohol,  which  serves  to  remove 
any  remaining  oil  from  the  surface.  If  the  article  has  veneered 
panels,  they  are  now  ready  for  the  final  processes  of  "  polishing  " 
or  "  flowing." 

FLOWING   AND   POLISHING. 

Plowing. — Flowing  i.s  the  process  of  gi\iiig  the  work,  after 
it  has  been  properly  prepared,  a  coat  of  varnish  made  expressly  for 
that  puri)C)se,  called  flowing  varnish.     Veneered  panels  nre  usually 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  3I 

finished  this  way.  Some  finishers,  when  the  body-work  is  to  be 
dead- finish  with  flowed  panels,  coat  the  panels  with  the  same  var- 
nish— shellac  or  other— used  for  the  body,  and  rub  them  with 
pumice-stone  and  oil ;  in  fact,  up  to  the  point  of  flowing  make  no 
difference  whatever  in  the  treatment  of  the  body-work  and  the 
panels.  Such  treatment  is  not  recommended;  whatever  varnish  is 
used  for  the  body-work,  the  panels  should  be  coated  with  two  or 
three  coats  of  the  best  rubbing  varnish ;  oil  should  not  be  used  for 
rubbing,  as,  if  the  surface  is  at  all  greasy  the  subsequent  coat  of 
flowing  varnish  cannot  be  evenly  laid,  therefore  water  should  be 
used  with  the  pumice-stone  for  rubbing,  in  place  of  oil.  After  the 
rubbing  is  completed,  wash  off  with  a  sponge  and  dry  with  a 
chamois  skin.  Let  it  stand  for  a  day,  and  after  freeing  the  work 
of  all  pumice-stone  and  dust,  take  it  to  the  flowing-room,  which 
should  be  clean,  dry,  and  free  from  dust  and  all  drafts  of  air,  apply 
the  varnish  with  a  flat  brush  of  suitable  width  made  of  badger  or 
fitch  hair;  lay  the  varnish  on  smoothly  and  evenly,  leaving  no 
marks  of  the  brush.  The  quicker  the  varnish  is  put  on,  and  the 
less  it  is  worked,  the  better  it  will  look.  Let  it  stand  in  the  room 
until  it  is  hard  enough  to  handle.  Upholstered  work  should  not 
be  flowed  until  it  comes  from  the  hands  of  the  upholsterer  and  is 
ready  for  the  warerooms. 

Varnisll  Polishing. — This  process  is  used  when  it  is  de- 
sired to  give  to  the  work  a  bright  lustre,  different  from  the  natural 
gloss,  and  resulting  from  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  produced  by 
rubbing.  The  previously  applied  coats  of  rubbing  varnish  having 
been  rubbed  down  with  pumice-stone  and  water,  one  or  more  coats 
of  |)olishing  varnish  is  applied,  rubbed  down  as  before,  and 
brought  to  a  bright  mirror-like  surface  with  rotten-stone  and  water. 
Clean  up  with  a  little  sweet  oil,  and  afterward  with  a  cloth  damp- 
ened in  alcohol. 


VARIETIES  OP  FINISH. 

The   processes  of  finishing   having  been  described,  it  now  re- 
mains to  explain  varieties  of  finishing  in  use;    these  are  largely 


32  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

derived  from  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  different  varnishes  used, 
for  full  explanation  of  which  see  article  on  Varnishes.  Polish- 
ing-varnishes,  which  are  very  hard  and  durable,  are  so  called  be- 
cause their  surface  can  be  brought  to  a  high  lustre  by  rubbing  with 
the  proper  materials.  Flowing  or  linishing-varnishes  contain  more 
oil  than  polishing-varnishes,  dry  more  slowly,  and  are  softer,  but 
their  peculiar  qualities  are  brilliancy  and  durability,  fitting  them 
for  work  requiring  a  brilliant  gloss,  such  as  veneered  panels.  Rub- 
bing-varnishes are  those  that  dry  sufficiently  hard  to  admit  of  being 
rubbed  to  a  smooth  surface.  Turpentine  varnishes,  being  the 
cheapest  variety,  are  employed  for  cheap  work,  such  as  common 
chairs,  bedsteads,  etc.  In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the 
particular  filler,  stain  or  other  preliminary  application  used  exer- 
cises an  important  influence  over  the  appearance  of  the  finish,  and 
that  a  great  variety  of  combinations  are  possible.  For  different 
woods  different  fillers  are  used,  the  basis  in  most  cases  being  the 
same,  the  difference  being  principally  in  the  coloring  material,  and 
this  is  capable  of  great  variation,  to  suit  individual  tastes.  The 
same  is  true  of  stains,  and  under  the  head  of  Stains  and  Fillers 
will  be  found  all  needed  information  concerning  the  applications 
proper  for  different  woods,  with  methods  for  using  them.  The 
varnish  or  other  covering  material  used  subsequently,  will  here  be 
treated  of  separately. 

Dead-Finish. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  finish  produced 
by  the  reduction  of  any  of  the  rubbing-varnishes  with  powdered 
pumice-stone  and  raw  linseed  oil  (see  Rubbing),  the  surface  thus 
produced  being  left  in  the  semi-lustrous  state,  by  omitting  the 
polishing  process.  It  is  now  more  used  than  any  other  for  body 
work,  shellac  varnish  being  generally  employed  because  of  its 
adaptation  to  the  requirements  of  fine  cabinet  work,  and  its  i)roper- 
ties  of  quick  and  hard  drying.  Copal,  anime  and  amber  varnishes 
are  also  used,  but  are  slower  drying,  Veneered  panels  are  usually 
"flowed"  or  "polished"  when  the  body  work  is  dead-fir.ished. 
The  number  of  coats  required  depends  somewhat  upon  the  quality 
of  the  filler,  but  usually  three  coats,  and  sometimes  less,  are  amply 
sufficient. 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  33 

Varnish  Finish. — For  cheap  work. — One  coat  of  filler  or 
stain,  followed  by  one  coat  of  cheap  turpentine  varnish,  without 
rubbing.  In  this  class  of  work,  the  brilliancy  of  the  gloss  and 
covering  qualities  of  the  varnish  are  principally  considered.  The 
cheaper  turpentine  varnishes  have  a  brilliant  gloss,  and  dry  very 
hard,  but  the  gloss  is  not  permanent,  and  after  drying,  the  gum  is 
very  brittle  and  easily  cracked  and  broken.  The  gum  used  is 
principally  common  resin. 

Wax  Finish. — Mix  together  with  heat,  white  wax  and 
spirits  of  turpentine  to  the  consistency  of  thick  paste;  when  cold, 
apply  it  to  the  work  with  a  rag;  rub  on  heavily  so  as  to  fill  the 
l)ores  of  the  wood  ;  remove  all  wax  from  the  surface  with  a  wooden 
scraper  made  in  the  shape  of  a  carpenter's  chisel;  smooth  off"  with 
a  bunch  of  soft  rags  by  rubbing  hard  and  quick  for  a  few  minutes; 
finish  with  a  little  French  polish  applied  with  a  cotton  pad.  (See 
French  Polish).  For  table  tops  and  all  large  flat  surfaces,  allow 
the  wax  to  remain  on  and  finish  with  a  warm  iron  by  passing  it 
lightly  and  quickly  over  the  work  until  the  wax  is  made  smooth 
and  the  surface  is  sufficiently  polished.  This  is  not  considered  a 
(iesirable  finish,  as  it  is  not  durable,  and  water  spots  it  very  easily. 

Imitation  Wax  Finish.— Use  the  light-colored,  filler, 
named  under  the  head  of  Fillers.  Apply  three  coats  of  white 
shellac ;  rub  down  with  pumice-stone  and  oil ;  clean  up  with 
brown  japan  and  spirits  of  turpentine  mixed.  Varnish-polish  the 
panels. 

Ebony  Finish.— This  finish  is  usually  applied  to  cherry,  or 
other  light-colored  woods  having  little  grain.  The  ebony  appear- 
ance is  produced  by  the  use  of  a  stain,  various  receipts  for  which 
will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Stains.  White  shellac  is  the 
varnish  usually  employed,  but  some  prefer  the  best  rubbing-var- 
nishes. Whatever  varnish  is  selected,  it  should  be  as  near  as  pos- 
sible transparent,  as  otherwise  the  color  of  the  work  will  appear  to 
be  greenish  or  Itrown.  Not  more  than  three  coats  should  be  ap- 
plied, as  successive  coats  of  the  most  transparent  varnish  will  cause 
an   opaque  or  clouded   appearance.      Ex|)erience  and  care  are  re- 


34  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CARINEI-MAKERS, 

(luired  to  successfully  rub  an  ebonized  article,  as  the  varnish  nuist 
be  rubbed  almost  to  the  wood,  and  if  rubbed  too  deep  a  i.tnlioii  of 
the  stain  is  removed,  leaving  a  spot.  Es[)ecial  care  should  be 
used  in  rubbing  the  angles.  Another. — Instead  of  staining  the 
wood  and  applying  successive  coats  of  transparent  rubbing- varnish, 
a  black  varnish  (or  more  properly  speaking,  a  lacquer)  is  often  laid 
upon  the  surface  of  the  wood.  I'his  process  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  being  very  speedy,  not  occupying  more  time  than  ordinary 
spirit-varnishing,  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  rapid  hardening  of  the 
gum  prevents  the  varnish  from  entering  into  and  becoming  fixed 
in  the  pores,  so  that  it  lies  in  a  thin,  hard,  but  very  brittle  coating 
upon  the  surface,  and  is  very  readily  broken  and  scaled  off,  leaving 
spots  of  the  original  color  of  the  wood,  that  cannot  be  properly  re- 
paired. Shellac  varnish  is  generally  used  for  this  finish,  and  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  to  it  drop-black  or  perfectly  pure  lamp-black, 
containing  no  grease  or  other  foreign  substance,  sufiicieni  to  make 
it  perfectly  black.  Apply  one  or  more  coats  of  this  to  the  work, 
and  finish  by  adding  the  necessary  number  of  coats  of  brown 
shellac,  and  rubbing  in  the  usual  way.  This  finish  is  employed 
when  it  is  desired  to  engrave  or  carve  a  design  through  ebonized 
work,  thus  making  the  natural  color  of  the  wood  appear  in  contrast 
to  the  black. 

French  Polishing. — This  is  a  method  of  varnishing  by 
rubbing  the  varnish  upon  the  surface  of  the  wood  instead  of  apply- 
ing it  with  brushes.  When  varnish  is  applied  simply  with  a  brush, 
a  comparatively  uneven  surface  results,  rendering  necessary  the 
subsequent  processes  of  rubbing  and  polishing,  but  by  the  method 
of  French  polishing,  a  smooth  and  continuous  surface,  hard  and  not 
easily  scratched,  is  secured. 

All  the  polishes  are  applied  very  much  in  the  same  way,  and  a 
general  description  will  therefore  be  sufficient.  To  obtain  a  good 
polish  with  lac  varnish  on  wood,  the  quantity  applied  must  be  very 
small,  and  must  be  rubbed  continuously  until  dry.  If  the  work  be 
porous  or  cross  grained,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  it  a  coat  of 
thin,  clear  size  previous  to  commencing  with  the  polish  ;  when  dry. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  35 

the  surface  must  be  smoothed  with  fine  glass  or  sand-paper.  The 
size  fills  up  the  pores  and  saves  the  polish,  and  also  saves  consider- 
able time  in  the  operation. 

Make  a  wad  of  cotton-batting,  covered  with  several  folds  of  very 
fine,  soft  linen  cloth ;  put  the  wad  or  cushion  to  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle  containing  the  preparation  (or  polish)  and  shake  it  sufficiently 
to  damp  the  cloth;  then  proceed  to  hghtly  rub  the  work  with  cir- 
cular motion ;  as  the  rubber  becomes  drier,  the  pressure  may  be  in- 
creased, but  care  should  be  taken  not  to  press  too  heavily  when 
the  rubber  contains  much  polish,  as  streakiness  will  result.  The 
circular  motion  should  be  continued  until  the  rubber  becomes  quite 
dry,  when  more  polish  may  be  taken  upon  it  and  the  rubbing  re- 
newed. It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rubber  should  never 
be  raised  directly  from  the  work,  but  should  be  raised  with  a  sweep- 
ing motion ;  also  that  it  should  never  for  a  moment  remain  quiet 
ui)on  the  surface ;  and  that  its  motion  should  be  as  even  as  pos- 
sible ;  neglect  of  these  precautions  will  produce  a  rough  surface 
wherever  the  rubber  remams  quiet  or  is  improperly  removed.  The 
circular  rubbing  must  be  continued  until  the  surface  appears  per- 
fectly smooth  and  the  pores  are  no  longer  visible.  Be  very  par- 
ticular to  keep  the  cloth  covering  of  the  wad  clean  and  soft ;  it  is 
desirable  to  use  a  clean  portion  each  time  it  is  dipped  in  the  polish. 
It  is  quite  likely  that  in  about  twelve  hours  after  the  above  opera- 
tion the  surface  of  the  work  will  be  lustreless,  and  the  grain  plainly 
visible,  in  that  case  proceed  over  the  work  again  until  the  grain  is 
thoroughly  filled.  French  polishing  is  a  process  requiring  particu- 
lar care  and  skill,  and  considerable  experience  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce good  results. 

The  Ingredients.— Shellac,  dissolved  in  alcohol,  is  the 
basis  of  all  French  polishes,  and  some  finishers  use  thin  shellac 
varnish  without  other  admixture,  slightly  moistening  the  rubber 
with  linseed  oil  to  prevent  stickiness  and  make  it  work  smoothly. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  admixtures  and  diversity  in  the  propor- 
tion of  ingredients,  but  the  differences  are  not  material.  We  sub- 
join a  number  of  receipts. 


36  I'RACllCAI.    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

The  Genuine  French-Polish.— To  one  pint  of  spirits 

oi"  wine  add  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  gum-copal,  a  cjuarier  of  an 
ounce  of  gum-Arabic,  and  one  ounce  of  shellac. 

Let  the  gums  be  well  bruised,  and  sifted  through  a  piece  of 
muslin.  Put  the  spirits  and  the  gums  together  in  a  vessel  that  can 
be  closely  corked ;  place  tliem  near  a  warm  stove,  and  frequently 
shake  them.  In  two  or  three  days  tliey  will  be  dissolved.  Strain 
ihe  mixture  through  a  piece  of  muslin,  and  keep  it  tight  corked 
for  use. 

French  Polish. — Take  one  ounce  each  of  mastic,  sandarac, 
seedlac,  shellac,  gumlac,  and  gum-Arabic ;  reduce  them  to  powder ; 
and  add  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  virgin  wax;  put  the  whole  into  a 
bottle,  with  one  (juart  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine;  let  it  stand  twelve 
hours,  and  it  will  be  tit  lor  use. 

Another. — Put  into  a  glass  bottle  one  ounce  of  gumlac,  two 
drachms  of  mastic  in  drops,  four  drachms  of  sandarac,  three  ounces 
of  shellac,  and  half  an  ounce  of  gum  dragon  ;  reduce  the  whole  to 
powder;  add  it  to  a  piece  of  camphor  the  size  of  a  nut,  and  pour 
on  it  eight  ounces  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine.  Stop  the  bottle 
close,  but  take  care,  when  the  gums  are  dissolving,  that  it  is  not 
more  than  half  full.      Place  near  a  warm  stove  until  dissolved. 

Other  French-Polish  Receipts. — i  pint  naptha,  31^  ounces  orange 
siiellac,  y2  ounce  elima.     Darken  with  red  saunders  wood. 

To  one  pint  of  spirits  of  wine,  add  half  an  ounce  of  gum  shellac, 
half  an  ounce  of  seed  lac,  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  gum  sand- 
arac ;  submit  the  whole  to  a  gentle  heat,  frequently  shaking  it,  till 
the  various  gums  are  dissolved,  when  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Shellac,  6  ounces ;  naptlia,  i  quart ;  sandarac,  i  ounce ;  ben- 
zoin, Y^  ounce. 

Tliree  ounces  shellac,  "/^  ounce  of  gum  mastic  pulverized,  and 
one  pint  of  methylated  spirits  of  wine  added.  Let  it  stand  till  dis- 
solved. 

Twelve  ounces  shellac,  2  ounces  gum  elimn,  3  ounces  gum  copal, 
I  gallon  of  spirits  of  wine;  dissolve. 

The  following  must  be  well  mixed  and  dissolved : — Pale  shellac, 
2j^   pounds;  3  ounces  mastic,  3  ounces  sandarac,  i  gallon  spirits 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  37 

of  wine.  After  the  above  is  dissolved,  add  i  pint  copal  varnish, 
I  ^.£  ounces  shellac,  1.2  ounce  gum  juniper,  ^2  ounce  benzoin,  }4 
[jint  of  mediylated  alcohol. 

An  Improved  Polish. — To  a  i)int  of  spirits  of  wine  add, 
in  fine  powder,  one  ounce  seedlac,  two  drachms  of  gum  guaiacum, 
two  drachms  of  dragon's-blood,  and  two  drachms  of  gum  mastic; 
expose  them,  in  a  vessel  stopped  close,  to  a  moderate  heat  for 
three  hours,  until  you  find  the  gums  dissolved;  strain  the  whole 
into  a  bottle  for  use,  with  a  quarter  of  a  gill  of  the  best  linseed  oil, 
to  be  shaken  up  well  with  it. 

This  polish  is  more  particularly  intended  for  dark-colored 
woods — for  it  is  apt  to  give  a  tinge  to  light  ones,  as  satin-wood  or 
air-wood,  etc — owing  to  the  admixture  of  the  dragon's-blood, 
which  gives  it  a  red  appearance. 

Water-proof  Polish. — Take  a  pint  of  spirits  of  wine,  two 
ounces  of  gum  benz(jni,  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  gum  sandarac, 
and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  gum  anime ;  these  must  be  put  into 
a  stopped  botde,  and  placed  either  in  a  sand-bath  or  in  hot  water 
till  dissolved;  then  strain  the  mixture,  and,  after  adding  about  a 
quarter  of  a  gill  of  the  best  clear  poppy  oil,  shake  it  well  up,  and 
put  it  by  for  use. 

Prepared  Spirits. — This  preparation  is  useful  for  finishing 
after  any  of  the  foregoing  receipts,  as  it  adds  to  the  lustre  and 
durability,  as  well  as  removes  every  defect,  of  the  other  polishes; 
and  it  gives  the  surface  a  most  brilliant  appearance. 

Haifa  pint  of  the  very  best  rectified  spirits  of  wine,  two  drachms 
of  shellac,  and  two  drachms  of  gum  benzoin.  Put  these  ingredi- 
ents into  a  bottle,  and  keep  it  in  a  warm  place  till  the  gum  is  all 
dissolved,  shaking  it  frequently ;  when  cold,  add  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  the  best  clear  white  poppy  oil ;  shake  them  well  together,  and  it 
is  fit  for  use. 

This  preparation  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  foregoing 
polishes;  but,  in  order  to  remove  all  dull  places,  you  may  increase 
the  pressure  in  rubbing. 


38  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Polish  for  Turners'  Work. — Dissolve  i  ounce  of 
sandarach  in  ^  pint  of  spirits  of  wine ;  shave  i  ounce  of  beeswax, 
and  dissolve  it  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine  to 
make  it  into  a  paste,  add  the  former  mixture  to  it  by  degrees ; 
then,  with  a  woollen  cloth,  apply  it  to  the  work  while  it  is  in  motion 
in  the  lathe,  and  polish  it  with  a  soft  linen  rag;  it  will  appear  as  if 
highly  varnished. 


STAINING. 

Staining  is  the  process  of  imparting  to  the  surface  of  wood  a 
color  different  from  its  natural  one.  It  consists  of  two  varieties, 
surface-staining  and  body-staining.  In  the  former,  as  the  name 
implies,  the  staining  is  effected  by  various  compounds  in  the  nature 
of  pigments,  laid  upon  the  surface  like  paint,  and  forming  a  thin 
opaque  coating,  which  does  not,  to  any  considerable  degree,  affect 
the  fibre  of  the  wood.  In  the  latter  the  changes  are  chemical,  the 
stain  being  usually  applied  as  a  thin  wash,  which,  entering  the 
pores  of  the  wood,  colors  it  to  some  depth  below  the  surface. 
Staining  requires  no  preliminary  preparation,  the  stain  being  ap- 
pHed  direcdy  to  the  wood.  As  most  stains  raise  the  grain  of  the 
wood  to  a  considerable  extent,  it  is  necessary  before  applying  the 
varnish,  to  sand-paper  the  wood  enough  to  render  the  grain  quite 
smooth;  this  sometimes  renders  a  second  coat  necessary,  after 
which  the  sand-paper  must  be  again  applied. 

A  Good  Black  Stain. —  i.  Gall-nuts  coarsely  broken,  2 
ounces  ;  rain  water,  i  quart ;  boil  until  reduced  one-half.  2.  White 
vinegar,  i  pint;  iron  filings,  2  ounces ;  antimony  (povk^dered)  2 
ounces ;  vitriol,  i  ounce ;  logwood,  a  small  handful.  Infuse  in 
bottle  eight  days,  tying  the  cork  down.  To  stain  a  piece  of  wood, 
give  the  wood  a  coating  of  No.  i,  which  acts  as  a  mordant;  when 
nearly  dry  put  on  No.  2  ;  let  it  dry  quite,  and  then  brush  it  over 
again  with  No.  2. 

Another. — Boil  i4  lb.  of  chip  logwood  in  2  quarts  of  water, 
add    I   oz.   of  pearl-ash,    anil    ajjply    it   hot  to    the    work   with  a 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  39 

brush  ;  then  take  ^  lb.  of  logwood,  boil  it  as  before  in  2  quarts  of 
water,  and  add  ^  oz.  of  verdigris  and  ^  oz.  of  copperas ;  strain 
it  off,  put  in  Yo  lb.  of  rusty  steel  filings,  and  with  this  go  over  the 
work  a  second  time. 

Another. — Boil  the  extract  of  logwood  in  water,  and  to  it  add 
slowly  a  little  of  the  yellow  prussiate  of  potash.     Brush  on  hot. 

Anol/icr. —  Boil  1  lb.  logwood  in  4  quarts  of  water ;  add  a  double 
handful  of  walnut-})eel  or  shells,  boil  it  up  again,  take  out  the 
chips,  add  a  pint  of  the  best  vinegar  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use;  ap- 
ply hot.  This  will  be  improved  by  applyhig  over  the  first  stain  a 
solution  of  one  ounce  of  green  copperas  in  a  quart  of  water. 

Other  Black  Stains. —  i.  Drop  a  little  sulphuric  acid  into  a  small 
quantity  of  water;  brush  over  the  wood  and  hold  it  to  the  fire; 
it  will  be  a  fine  black  and  receive  a  good  polish.  2.  l"'or  a  beau- 
tiful black,  on  wood,  nothing  can  exceed  black  japan.  Apply 
two  coats;  after  which,  varnish  and  polish  it.  3.  To  i  gallon  vine- 
gar, add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  iron  rust;  let  it  stand  for  a  week; 
then  add  a-pound  of  dry  lamp-black,  and  three-quarters  of  a  pound 
copperas ;  stir  it  up  for  a  couple  of  days.  Lay  on  five  or  six  coats 
with  a  sponge,  allowing  it  to  dry  between  each  ;  polish  with  linseed 
oil  and  a  soft  woollen  rag,  and  it  will  look  like  ebony.  4.  Vinegar,  ^A 
gal.;  dry  lamp-black,  ^  lb.;  iron  rust  sifted,  3  lbs.;  mix  and  let  stand 
for  a  week.  Lay  three  coats  of  this  on  hot,  and  then  rub  witli  lin- 
seed oil,  and  you  will  have  a  fine  deep  black.  5.  Add  to  the  above 
stain  nut-galls,  i  oz.;  logwood  chips,  y^  lb.;  copperas,  ^  lb.;  lay 
on  three  coats ;  oil  well,  and  you  will  have  a  black  stain  that  will 
stand  any  kind  of  weather,  and  is  well  adapted  for  ships'  combings, 
etc.  6.  Logwood  chips,  ^^  lb.;  Brazil-wood,  y^  lb.;  boil  for  i^^ 
hours  in  i  gallon  water.  Brush  the  wood  with  this  decoction  while 
hot ;  make  a  decoction  of  nut-galls,  by  gentle  simmering  for  three 
or  four  days,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  the  galls  in  3  qts.  water ;  give 
the  wood  three  coats,  and,  while  wet,  lay  on  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  iron  (2  ozs.  to  a  quart),  and,  when  dry,  oil  or  varnish.  7.  Give 
three  coats  with  a  solution  of  copper  filings  in  aquafortis,  and  re- 
peatedly brush  over  with  the  logwood  decoction  until  the  greenness 


40  PRACTICAL   INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

of  the  copper  is  destroyed.  8.  Boil  ><  lb.  logwood  chips  in  2 
quarts  water;  add  an  ounce  of  pearlash,  and  apply  hot  with  a 
brush.  Then  take  2  quarts  of  the  logwood  decoction,  and  }^  oz. 
of  verdigris,  and  the  same  of  copperas ;  strain,  and  throw  in  ^  lb. 
of  iron  rust.     Brush  the  work  well  with  this,  and  oil. 

Brown  Stain. — Boil  i  lb.  of  the  brown  pigment  called  Terre 
de  Cassel  with  4  quarts  of  water,  until  it  is  reduced  one-third. 
Mix  two  ounces  (Troy)  of  white  potash  with  sufficient  water  to  dis- 
solve it,  and  mix  with  the  Terre  de  Cassel.  This  stain  must  be  ap- 
plied with  a  brush,  two  or  even  three  times,  according  to  the  depth 
of  the  shade  required. 

Walnut  Stain. — Mix  together,  by  stirring,  i  quart  spirits  of 
turpentine,  i  pint  asphaltum  varnish,  i  pint  of  japan,  i  lb.  dry- 
burnt  umber,  i  lb.  dry  Venetian  red;  apply  with  a  brush.  This 
stain  is  transparent,  and  allows  the  grain  of  the  wood  to  show 
through. 

Another. — Boil  1^2  ounces  washing-soda,  and  ^  ounce  bi- 
chromate of  potash,  in  i  quart  of  water;  add  2^  ounces  Vandyke 
brown.     This  stain  may  be  used  either  hot  or  cold. 

Another. — With  a  brush  apply  a  thin  solution  of  permanganate 
of  potassa  in  water,  until  the  desired  color  is  produced,  allowing, 
each  coat  to  dry  before  another  is  applied. 

Oak  stain. — Add  to  a  quart  of  water  2  ounces  each  of  potash 

and  pearlash.  Tliis  is  a  very  good  stain,  but  it  should  be  used 
carefully  as  it  blisters  tlie  hands  and  softens  brushes.  The  stain 
may  be  made  lighter  by  adding  more  water. 

Otiier  Ocik  Stains.  — To  darken  the  color  of  oak  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  used  : 

Liquid  ammonia  laid  on  evenly  with  a  rag  or  brush  will  deepen 
the  color  immediately,  and  it  will  not  fade,  this  being  an  artificial 
production  of  result  produced  naturally  by  age. 

Bichromate  of  i)otash,  dissolved  in  cold  water,  and  ap])lied  with 
a  brush,  will  produce  a  similar  result. 

A  decoction  of  green  walnut-shells  will  bring  new  oak  to  any 
shade  or  nearly  black. 


UPHOLSrEkKRS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  4I 

Rosewood  Stain. — Mix  in  a  bottle  }^  lb.  of  extract  of  log- 
wood, I  oz.  salts  of  tartar,  and  i  pint  of  water;  in  another  bottle, 
put  I  lb.  of  old  iron  in  small  pieces,  and  i  pint  of  vinegar,  which, 
after  standing  twenty-four  hours,  will  be  ready  for  use;  make  a 
hard  stiff  brush  with  a  piece  of  rattan  sharpened  at  one  end  in  a 
wedge  shape,  pounding  it  so  as  to  separate  the  fibre.  Mix  in 
I  pint  of  varnish,  i^  lb.  of  finely-powdered  rose-pink.  The  mate- 
rials are  now  ready,  and  the  first  thing  in  the  process  is  to  stain  the 
wood  with  the  logwood  stain ;  give  two  coats  of  this,  allowing  the 
first  to  become  nearly  dry  before  applying  the  second;  then  dip 
the  rattan  brush  in  the  vinegar,  and  with  it  form  the  grain,  after 
which  give  the  work  a  coat  of  the  varnish  and  rose  pink.  There 
can  be  no  definite  directions  given  for  graining,  except  to  study  the 
natural  wood  and  imitate  it  as  near  as  possible.  With  the  above 
materials  skilfully  applied,  any  common  wood  can  be  made  to  re- 
semble rosewood  so  nearly  that  it  will  take  a  good  judge  to  dis- 
tinguish the  difference. 

Another. — Boil  i  lb.  of  logwood  in  i  gallon  of  water,  add  a 
double  handful  of  walnut  shells,  boil  the  whole  again,  strain  the 
liquor  and  add  to  it  i  pint  of  the  best  vinegar.  It  is  then  ready 
for  use.  Apply  it  boiling  hot,  and  when  the  wood  is  dry,  form  red 
veins  in  imitation  of  the  grain  of  rosewood  with  a  brush  dipped  in 
the  following  solution:  Nitric  acid,  i  pint;  metallic  tin,  i  oz.;  sal 
ammoniac,  i  oz.  Mix  and  set  aside  to  dissolve,  occasionally 
shaking.  « 

Cherry  Stain. — Mix  together,  by  stirring,  i  quart  of  spirits 
of  turpentine,  i  pint  of  varnish,  and  i  lb.  of  dry  burnt  sienna; 
apply  with  a  brush,  and  after  it  has  been  on  about  five  minutes 
wipe  it  off  with  rags.     This  stain  takes  about  12  hours  to  dry. 

A?iother  Cherry  Stam. — Take  i  quart  alcohol,  2  ozs.  of  dragon's- 
blood  ;  pulverize  the  latter  along  with  i/(  oz.  of  alkanet  root ;  mix, 
and  let  stand  in  a  warm  place  a  couple  of  days.  Shake  frequently 
in  the  meantime.  Apply  with  a  sponge  or  brush.  Two  or  three 
coats  may  be  required.     This  makes  a  fine  stain. 

Red  stain  for  Common  Work. — Archil  will  produce  a  very 


42  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

good  Stain  of  itself  when  used  cold,  but  if  after  one  or  two  coats 
have  Ijeen  applied  and  suftered  to  get  almost  dry,  it  is  bruslied 
over  with  a  hot  solution  of  pearlash  in  water,  it  will  improve  the 
color. 

Mahogany  Stain. — To  darken  mahogany,  apply  a  weak 
solution  of  bichromate  o!  potash  in  water.  Apply  successive  coats, 
allowing  each  to  dry,  until  the  required  shade  is  secured. 

Surface  Stains.— The  following  are  for  the  most  part  used 
to  apply  to  woods  of  inferior  quality,  to  make  them  resemble 
choicer  woods.  The  colors  are  all  to  be  mi.xed  with  very  thin  glue 
size,  laid  on  warm  with  a  soft  woollen  material,  and  the  wood 
wiped  dry  after  application.  All  the  colors  used  in  staining  should 
be  well  pulverized,  and  before  use  the  liquid  should  be  strained. 

Imiiation  Oak  Stain. — Equal  parts  burnt  umber  and  brown 
ochre. 

hnitatwn  Mahogany  Stain. — One  part  \"enetian  red  and  two 
parts  yellow  lead. 

Imitation  Rosewood  Stain. — Venetian  red,  darkened  with  lamp- 
black to  required  shade. 

Imitation  Walnut  Stain. — Burnt  umber  and  yellow  ochre,  mixed 
in  proportions  to  give  desired  shade. 

Fine  Crimson  Stain. — Boil  i  lb.  of  good  Brazil  dust  in 
3  quarts  of  water  for  an  hour;  strain  it,  and  add  ^A  oz.  of  cochi- 
neal ;  boil  it  again  gently  for  iialf  an  hour,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

If  you  will  have  it  more  of  a  scarlet  tint,  boil  half  an  ounce  of 
saffron  in  a  quart  of  water  for  an  hour,  and  pass  over  the  work 
previous  to  the  red  stain. 

Purple  Stain.  -I'o  i  lb.  of  good  chip  logwood  put  3  quarts 
of  water;  boil  it  well  for  an  hour  ;  then  add  4  ozs.  of  i)earlash,  and 
2  ozs.  of  indigo  pounded. 

Fine  Blue  Stain. — into  i  lb.  of  oil  of  vitriol  (sulj^huric 
acid)  in  a  clean  glass  phial,  put  4  ozs.  of  indigo,  and  proceed  as 
above  directed  in  dyeing  purple. 

Fine  Green  Stain. — To   2  pints  of  the   strongest    vinegar, 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  43 

add  4  ozs.  of  the  best  verdigris   pounded  fine,  )^  oz.  of  sap  green, 
and  ^  oz.  of  indigo. 

Distilled  vinegar,  or  verjuice,  improves  the  color. 

Yellow  Stain. — Dissolve  }(  lb.  tumeric  in  i  pint  alcohol ; 
let  it  stand  until  the  tumeric  settles  to  the  bottom. 

Another. — A  small  piece  of  aloes  added  to  the  varnish  will  have 
all  the  eftect  of  a  bright  yellow  stain. 

To  Brighten  Stains. — Any  of  the  stains  named  (except 
the  surface  stains)  will  be  rendered  mucli  more  brilliant  by  an  appli- 
cation of  the  following:  i  oz.  nitric  acid,  ]4  teaspoonful  muriatic 
acid,  y^  oz.  grain  tin,  2  ozs.  rain  water.  Mix  in  a  bottle,  at  least 
two  days  before  using,  and  keep  the  bottle  well  corked. 


DYEING  WOOD. 

Dyeing  wood  is  mostly  applied  for  the  purpose  of  veneers, 
while  staining  is  more  generally  had  recourse  to  to  give  the  desired 
color  to  the  article  after  it  has  been  manufactured.  In  the  one 
case,  the  color  should  penetrate  throughout,  while  in  the  latter  the 
surface  is  all  that  is  essential. 

In  dyeing,  pear-tree,  holly  and  beech,  take  the  best  black;  but 
for  most  colors,  holly  is  preferable.  It  is  also  best  to  have  wood 
as  young  and  as  newly  cut  as  possible.  After  the  veneers  are  cut, 
they  should  be  allowed  to  lie  in  a  trough  of  water  for  four  or  five 
days  before  they  are  put  into  the  copper;  as  the  water,  acting  as  a 
l)urgative  to  the  wood,  brings  out  an  abundance  of  slimy  matter, 
which  must  be  removed,  or  the  wood  will  never  be  a  good  color. 
After  this  purificatory  process,  they  should  be  dried  in  the  open 
air  for  at  least  twelve  hours.  They  are  then  ready  for  the  copper. 
By  these  simple  means  the  color  will  strike  much  quicker,  and  be 
of  a  brighter  hue.  It  would  also  add  to  the  improvement  of  the 
colors,  if,  after  the  veneers  have  boiled  a  few  hours,  they  are  taken 
out,  dried  in  the  air,  and  again  immersed  in  the  coloring  copper. 
Always  dry  veneers  in  the  open  air,  for  fire  invariably  injures  the 
colors. 


44  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Fine  Black  Dye. — Put  6  lbs.  of  chip  logwood  into  the 
copper,  with  as  many  veneers  as  it  will  conveniently  hold,  without 
pressing  too  tight ;  fill  it  with  water,  and  let  it  boil  sloivly  for  about 
three  hours;  then  add  half  a  pound  of  powdered  verdigris,  half  a 
pound  of  copperas,  antl  4  ounces  of  bruised  nut-galls ;  fill  the  copper 
up  with  vinegar  as  the  water  evaporates ;  let  it  boil  gently  two 
hours  each  day  till  the  wood  is  dyed  through. 

Another. — Procure  some  liquor  from  a  tanner's  pit,  or  make  a 
strong  decoction  of  oak  bark,  and  to  every  gallon  of  the  liquor  add 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  green  copperas,  and  mix  them  well  to- 
gether; put  the  liquor  into  the  copper,  a4Ki  make  it  quite  hot,  but 
not  boil ;  immerse  the  veneers  in  it,  and  let  them  remain  for  an 
hour;  take  them  out,  and  expose  them  to  the  air  till  it  has  pene- 
trated its  substance ;  then  add  some  logwood  to  the  solution,  place 
the  veneers  again  in  it,  and  let  it  simmer  for  two  or  three  hours; 
let  the  whole  cool  gradually,  dry  the  veneers  in  the  shade,  and 
they  will  be  a  very  fine  black. 

Fine  Blue  Dye. — into  a  clean  glass  bottle  put  I  lb.  of  oil 
of  vitriol,  and  4  ozs.  of  the  best  indigo  pounded  in  a  mortar  (take 
care  to  set  the  bottle  in  a  basin  or  earthen  glazed  pan,  as  it  will 
ferment);  then  put  the  veneers  into  a  copper  or  stone  trough;  fill 
it  rather  more  tlian  one-third  with  water,  and  add  as  much  of  the 
vitriol  and  indigo  (stirring  it  about)  as  will  make  a  fine  blue,  which 
may  be  known  by  trying  it  with  a  piece  of  white  paper  or  wood. 
Let  the  veneers  remain  till  the  dye  has  struck  through. 

The  color  will  be  much  improved  if  the  solution  of  indigo  in 
vitriol  be  kept  a  few  weeks  before  using  it.  The  color  will  strike 
better  if  the  veneers  are  boiled  in  plain  water  till  com])letely  soaked 
through,  and  then  allowed  for  a  few  hours  to  dry  partially,  previous 
to  being  immersed  in  the  dye. 

Another. — Throw  pieces  of  quicklime  into  soft  water;  stir  it 
well ;  when  settled,  strain  or  pour  off  the  clear  part;  then  to  every 
gallon  add  ten  or  twelve  ounces  of  the  best  turnsole;  put  the 
whole  into  the  copi>er  with  the  veneers,  which  should  be  of  white 
holly,  and   prepared  as  usual  by  boiling  in  water;  let  them  simmer 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  45 

gently  till  the  color  has  sufficiently  penetrated,  but  be  careful  not 
to  let  them  boil  in  it,  as  it  would  injure  the  color. 

A  Fine  Yellow  Dye.— Reduce  4  lbs.  of  the  root  of 
barberry,  by  sawing,  to  dust,  which  put  in  a  copper  or  brass 
trough ;  add  4  ozs.  of  turmeric  and  4  gallons  of  water,  then  put  in 
as  many  white  holly  veneers  as  the  liquor  will  cover ;  boil  them 
together  for  three  hours,  often  turning  them  ;  when  cool,  add  2 
ozs.  of  aquafortis  and  the  dye  will  strike  through  much  sooner. 

A  Bright  Yellow  Dye. — To  every  gallon  of  water  neces- 
sary to  cover  the  veneers,  add  i  lb.  of  French  berries ;  boil  the 
veneers  till  the  color  has  penetrated  through  ;  add  to  the  infusion 
of  the  French  berries,  the  liquid  for  brightening  colors  given  on 
page  43,  and  let  the  veneers  remain  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  the 
color  will  be  very  bright. 

Bright  Green  Dye. — Proceed  as  in  either  of  the  previous 
receipts  to  produce  a  yellow ;  but  instead  of  adding  aquafortis  or 
the  brightening  liquid,  add  as  much  vitriolated  indigo  (see  page  44) 
as  will  produce  the  desired  color. 

Green  Dye. — Dissolve  4  ozs.  of  the  best  verdigris,  and  of 
sap-green  and  indigo  half  an  ounce  each,  in  3  pints  of  the  best 
vinegar ;  put  in  the  veneers,  and  gently  boil  till  the  color  has  pene- 
trated sufficiently. 

The  hue  of  the  green  may  be  varied  by  altering  the  proportion 
of  the  ingredients ;  and  it  is  advised,  unless  wanted  for  a  particular 
purpose,  to  leave  out  the  sap-green,  as  it  is  a  vegetable  color  very 
apt  to  change,  or  turn  brown,  when  exposed  to  the  air. 

Bright  Red  Dye.— To  2  lbs.  of  genuine  Brazil  dust,  add  4 
gallons  of  water;  put  in  as  many  veneers  as  the  liquor  will  cover; 
boil  them  for  three  hours ;  then  add  2  ozs.  of  alum,  and  2  ozs.  of 
aquafortis,  and  keep  it  lukewarm  until  it  has  struck  through. 

Red  Dye. — To  every  pound  of  logwood  chips,  add  2  gal- 
lons of  water;  put  in  the  veneers,  and  boil  as  in  the  last;  then  add 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  brightening  liquid  (see  page  43)  till  you 
see  the  color  to  your  mind  ;  keep  the  whole  as  warm  as  the  finger 
can  be  borne  in  it,  till  the  color  has  sufficientlv  i>enetrated. 


46  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

The  logwood  chips  should  be  picked  from  all  foreign  substances, 
widi  which  it  generally  abounds,  as  bark,  dirt,  etc.;  and  it  is  always 
best  when  fresh  cut,  which  may  be  known  by  its  appearing  of  a 
bright-red  color;  for  if  stale,  it  will  look  brown,  and  not  yield  so 
much  coloring  matter. 

Purple  Dye. — To  2  lbs.  of  chip  logwood  and  half  a  pound 
of  Brazil  dust,  add  4  gallons  of  water,  and  after  putting  in  the 
veneers,  boil  them  for  at  least  three  hours;  then  add  6  ozs.  of 
pearlash  and  2  ozs.  of  alum ;  let  them  boil  for  two  or  three  hours 
every  day,  till  the  color  has  struck  through. 

The  Brazil  dust  only  contributes  to  make  the  purple  of  a  more 
red  cast;  you  may,  therefore,  omit  it,  if  you  require  a  deep  bluish 
purple. 

Another. — Boil  2  lbs.  of  logwood,  either  in  chips  or  powder,  in  4 
gallons  of  water,  with  the  veneers ;  after  boiling  till  the  color  is  well 
struck  in,  add  by  degrees  vitriolated  indigo  (see  page  44)  till  the 
purple  is  of  the  shade  required,  which  may  be  known  by  trying  it 
with  a  piece  of  paper;  let  it  then  boil  for  one  hour,  and  keep  the 
liquid  in  a  milk-warm  state  till  the  color  has  penetrated  the  veneer. 
This  method,  when  properly  managed,  will  produce  a  brilliant 
purple,  not  so  likely  to  fade  as  the  foregoing. 

Liquid  for  Brightening  and  Setting  Colors. — To  every 
pint  of  strong  aquafortis,  add  i  oz.  of  grain  tin,  and  a  piece  of  sal- 
ammoniac  of  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  set  it  by  to  dissolve,  shake  the 
bottle  round  with  the  cork  out,  from  time  to  time ;  in  the  course  of 
two  or  three  days  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  This  will  be  found  an  ad- 
mirable liquid  to  add  to  any  color,  as  it  not  only  brightens  it,  but 
renders  it  less  likely  to  fade  from  exposure  to  the  air. 

Orange  Dye. — Let  the  veneers  be  dyed  by  either  of  the 
methods  given  in  page  45,  of  a  fine  deep  }-e]low,  and  while  they 
are  still  wet  and  saturated  with  the  dye,  transfer  them  to  the  bright 
red  dye  as  in  page  45,  till  the  color  penetrates  equally  throughout. 

Silver  Gray  Dye. — Expose  to  the  weather  in  a  cast-iron 
])0t  of  six  or  eight  gallons,  old  iron  nails,  hoops,  etc..  till  covered 
with  rust;   ndd  i  gallon  of   \'ine2;ar  and  2  of  water,  boil  nil  well  for 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  47 

an  hour ;  have  the  veneers  ready,  which  must  be  hard-wood  (not  too 
dry),  put  them  in  the  copper  used  to  dye  black,  and  pour  the  iron 
hcjuor  over  them;  add  i  lb.  of  chip  logwood  and  2  ozs.  of  bruised 
nut-galls ;  then  boil  up  another  pot  of  the  iron  liquor  to  supply 
the  copper  with,  keeping  the  veneers  covered,  and  boiling  two 
hours  a  day,  till  the  required  color  is  obtained. 

Gray  Dye. — Expose  any  quantity  of  old  iron,  or  what  is 
better,  the  borings  of  gun-barrels,  etc.,  in  any  convenient  vessel, 
and  from  time  to  time  sprinkle  them  with  spirits  of  salt  (muriatic 
acid)  diluted  in  four  times  its  quantity  of  water,  till  they  are  very 
thickly  covered  with  rust ;  then  to  every  six  pounds  add  a  gallon 
of  water,  in  which  has  been  dissolved  two  ounces  of  salt  of  tartar; 
lay  the  veneers  in  the  copper,  and  cover  them  with  this  liquid ;  let 
it  boil  for  two  or  three  hours  till  well  soaked,  then  to  every  gallon 
of  liquor  add  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  green  copperas,  and  keep  the 
whole  at  a  moderate  temperature  till  the  dye  has  sufficiently  pene- 
trated. 


GILDING,  SILVERING  AND  BRONZING. 

Gilding,  Silvering  and  Bronzing  are  processes  of 

applying  to  previously  prepared  surfaces  a  thin  layer  of  gold  or 
silver  leaf,  or  in  bronzing,  of  a  fine  powder,  prepared  from  various 
metals  and  intended  to  imitate  the  peculiar  appearance  of  genuine 
bronze.  The  processes  of  gilding  and  silvering  being  identical,  the 
description  of  one  will  suffice  to  explain  the  other. 

Gilding. — Gold  leaf,  applied  to  articles  of  furniture  as  a 
means  of  decoration,  is  used  in  two  ways ;  it  is  applied  over  an 
ordinary  varnish  or  other  finish,  in  which  case  but  litde  special 
preparation  is  necessary  ;  or,  as  when  used  for  picture  frames,  cor- 
nices, etc.,  it  is  applied  to  a  specially  prepared  foundation,  the  basis 
ot  which  is  whiting,  mixed  with  various  other  ingredients  suggested 
by  experience  or  fancy.  In  either  case,  the  gold  leaf  is  caused  to 
adhere  to  the  work,  by  size  specially  prepared  for  the  purpose,  re- 
ceipts for  which  follow  herewith ;  the  size  being  first  applied  to  the 


48  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

work,  and  when  it  has  become  of  the  right  consistency,  the  gold  is 
laid  upon  it.  Oil-Gilding  and  Burnish-Gilding  are  different 
methods  used  to  obtain  certain  desired  effects,  the  former  princi- 
pally for  articles  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  for  heightening  the 
effect  of  incised  carving  or  engraving,  and  the  latter  for  picture- 
frames  and  articles  having  a  specially  prepared  foundation,  whose 
entire  surface  is  to  be  gilded.  It  is  intended  that  the  gold  shall 
adhere  to  the  work  only  in  the  places  to  which  the  size  has  been 
applied,  but  the  smallest  portion  of  oil  or  even  a  slight  dampness 
may  cause  the  gold  to  partially  adhere  to  the  adjoining  surface,  re- 
sulting in  slightly  ragged  edges ;  to  prevent  this,  before  applying 
the  size  to  the  desired  design,  the  entire  surface  is  covered  with  a 
thin  film  of  some  substance  perfectly  free  from  moisture,  and  easily 
removable  by  water,  after  completion  of  the  process.  Directions 
regarding  this  preliminary  process  are  given  under  the  caption :  To 
Prevent  Gold  Adhering. 

The  Requisites. — First,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  leaf-gold, 
which  is  of  two  sorts — the  deep  gold,  as  it  is  called,  and  the  pale 
gold.  The  former  is  the  best;  the  latter  very  useful,  and  may 
occasionally  be  introduced  for  variety  or  effect. 

Second,  a  gilder's  cushion :  an  oblong  piece  of  wood,  covered 
with  rough  calfskin,  stuffed  with  flannel  several  times  doubled, 
with  a  border  of  parchment,  about  four  inches  deep,  at  one  end,  to 
prevent  the  air  blowing  the  leaves  about  when  placed  on  the 
cushion. 

Thirdly,  a  gilding-knife,  with  a  straight  and  very  smooth  edge, 
to  cut  the  gold. 

Fourthly,  several  camel-hair  pencils  in  sizes,  and  tips,  made  of 
a  k\v  long  camel's  hairs  put  between  two  cards,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  hairs  are  put  into  tin  cases  for  brushes,  thus  making  a  fiat 
brush  with  a  very  few  hairs. 

Lastly,  a  burnisher,  which  is  a  crooked  piece  of  agate  set  in  a 
long  wooden  handle. 

Sizes. — These -are  of  two  kinds:  oil  sizes  are  those  which 
when  apijlicd,  present  an  adhesive  surface,  requiring  the  immediate 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  49 

laying  of  the  gold-leaf  upon  it;  of  this  class  is  the  oil-size  com- 
monly used  in  decorating  furniture;  water-sizes  are  those  that  are 
allowed  to  become  dry  and  hard  when  applied,  and  are  rendered 
adhesive  when  the  gold  is  to  be  laid,  by  brushing  over  with  water ; 
for  burnish-gilding  these  are  always  employed,  as  oil-size  does  not 
dry  sufficiently  hard  to  permit  of  burnishing. 

Oil-Size  for  Oil-Gilding. — Grind  calcined  red-ochre 
with  the  best  and  oldest  tlr\ing-oil.  When  desired  for  use,  add  suf- 
ficient oil  of  turpentine  to  make  it  work  freely. 

Parchment-Size. — For  preparing  Frames,  etc. — To  half  a 
pound  of  parchment  shavings,  or  cuttings  of  white  leather,  add 
three  quarts  of  water,  and  boil  it  in  a  proper  vessel  till  reduced  to 
nearly-half  the  quantity ;  then  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  strain  it 
through  a  sieve.  Be  careful  in  the  boiling  to  keep  it  well  stirred, 
and  do  not  let  burn. 

Gold-Size  for  Burnish-Gilding.— Grind  fine  sal- 
ammoniac  well  with  a  muller  and  stone ;  scrape  into  it  a  litde  beef 
suet,  and  grind  all  well  together;  after  which,  mix  in  with  a  pallet- 
knife  a  small  proportion  of  parchment-size  with  a  double  propor- 
tion of  water.  When  about  to  use,  add  parchment-size  until  it  will 
just  flow  from  the  brush. 

Another. — Grind  a  lump  of  tobacco-pipe  clay  into  a  very  stiff 
])aste  with  thin  size;  add  a  small  quantity  of  ruddle  and  fine 
black  lead,  ground  very  fine,  and  temper  the  whole  with  a  small 
piece  of  tallow.  When  ready  to  use,  reduce  with  parchment-size 
until  it  will  just  flow  from  the  brush. 

Another. — Grind  separately  in  water,  i  lb.  Armenian  bole,  2  ozs. 
red  lead,  a  sufificient  quantity  of  black  lead;  mix,  and  regrind  with 
a  small  quantity  of  olive  oil.  Reduce  with  parchment-size  to  the 
proper  consistenc}-. 

To  Prevent  Gold  Adhering. — Eitiier  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing methods  will  prevent  gold-leaf  or  bronze  from  adhering  to 
the  surface  beyond  the  outlines  of  the  sizing  laid  on  to  receive  it: 

1.  Whiting  used  dry,  and  ajiplied  by  means  of  a  pounce  bag. 

2.  Whiting    mixed    in    water,    and    applied    with  a   soft    brush. 


5©  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

When  the  water  has  evaporated,  dust  off  the  superfluous  wliiting 
with  an  ordinary  paint  duster.  By  tliis  method  a  very  thin  coat- 
ing of  whiting  remains,  which  is  free  from  any  grittiness.  One 
advantage  gained  by  the  use  of  whiting  thus  apphed  is,  it  furnishes 
a  whitish  ground  over  which  clear  varnish  or  oil-size  may  be  dis- 
tinctly seen  as  the  striping  progresses.  After  the  leaf  or  bronze 
has  been  applied,  the  work  must  be  carefully  washed,  so  as  to  in- 
sure the  removal  of  the  whiting. 

3.  White  of  egg  reduced  with  water,  and  applied  with  a  piece  of 
sponge. 

4.  A  thin  wash  of  starch  water,  either  brushed  on  with  a  flat 
camel-hair  brush,  or  applied  with  a  soft  sponge, 

5.  Take  ball  liquorice  and  water,  a  weak  solution,  and  apply 
with  a  soft  brush.  This  may  be  kept  in  a  bottle  ready  for  use  at 
any  time. 

6.  Cut  a  new  potato  in  two,  and  rub  over  the  part  to  be  sized 
Avith  the  raw  face  exposed,  allowing  the  juice  to  remain  until  dry. 

It  will  be  observed  that  any  substance  which  interposes  a  film 
over  the  varnish,  itself  being  free  from  tackiness  and  readily  re- 
moved by  water,  will  answer  the  purjjose. 

Oil  Gilding. — Applying  the  Gold. — If  the  wood  to  be 
gilded  is  finished  with  varnish  or  otherwise,  no  additional  founda- 
tion is  necessary  upon  which  to  lay  the  gold-leaf;  if  the  w^ood  is 
not  finished,  after  it  has  been  smoothed  and  dusted,  give  it  one  or 
two  coats  of  parchment  size,  after  it  is  perfectly  dry  and  hard, 
again  smoothing  the  surface  with  fine  sand-paper.  That  the  gold 
may  not  adhere  to  any  part  of  the  work  except  where  the  size  is 
hard,  powder  the  surface  lightly  with  whiting  from  a  pounce-bag, 
which  is  a  small  bag  made  of  material  sufficiently  loose  to  permit 
the  powdered  whiting  to  sift  through  as  fine  dust ;  if  preferred, 
any  of  the  preceding  receipts  for  that  purpose  can  be  used  instead. 
Remove  the  surplus  whiting  with  the  dusting-brush,  and  the  work 
is  then  ready  for  the  size.  Apply  tliis  with  a  sable  or  fit  brush  of 
the  proper  size,  carefully  observing  to  make  the  outer  lines  of 
the  design  clear  and  sharp,  that  the  work  may  not  appear  ragged. 
Let  the  size   remain   until  it   feels  tacky,  w'hen  the  gold  may  be  ap- 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  51 

])lied.  This  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  operation,  and  experi- 
ence is  necessary  before  gold-leaf  can  be  laid  smoothly  without  a 
wrinkle  or  a  break.  Turn  a  leaf  of  gold  out  of  the  book  upon  the 
cushion ;  breathe  gently  upon  the  centre  of  the  leaf  and  it  will  lay 
flat  on  the  cushion ;  cut  it  to  the  proper  size  by  bringing  the  knife 
perpendicularly  over  it,  and  sawing  it  gently  until  divided.  Take 
your  tip  (a  brush  used  for  the  purpose)  and  after  drawing  it  lightly 
over  your  hair  to  remove  any  particles  or  dust  that  may  be  upon 
it,  breathe  ujion  it  gendy,  which  will  dampen  it  sufficiently  to 
cause  the  leaf  of  gold  to  adhere  to  it;  lay  the  tip  u[)on  the  leaf  of 
gold  and  carefully  transfer  it  to  the  work;  blow  upon  it  gently  and 
It  will  straighten  out  and  adhere.  It  may  be  rendered  quite  smooth 
by  slighdy  dabbing  it  with  a  bit  of  cotton.  In  about  an  hour  wash 
off  the  superfluous  gold  from  the  edges,  with  a  si)Ouge  and  water. 
If  the  article  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather  or  much  wear,  the 
gilding  may  be  varnished  with  copal  varnish. 

Burnisll-Grilding. — As  previously  stated,  tliis  process  re- 
quires a  specially  prepared  foundation  upon  which  to  lay  the  gold, 
and  as  the  preparation  of  this  foundation  is  a  distinct  trade,  the 
furniture  (iealer  or  cabinet-maker  seldom  finds  it  necessary  to  un- 
dertake it,  the  articles  coming  to  his  hand  ready-prepared  for  gild- 
ing; but  as  in  repairing  picture-frames,  cornices,  mirror  frames, 
etc.,  it  frequently  becomes  necessary  to  renew  the  foundation,  a 
comprehensive  description  of  the  whole  process  is  given. 

Preparing   the   Wood-work. — After   smoothing   and 

dusting  the  work,  coat  the  frames  in  every  part  with  boiling-hot 
parchment-size,  as  previously  described,  then  mix  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  whiting  with  size  to  the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  and  with 
it  by  means  of  a  brush,  coat  every  part  of  the  frame  several  times, 
permitting  each  coat  to  become  perfectly  dry  before  proceeding 
with  the  next.  The  wood  will  thus  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  hard 
v.'hiting  nearly  or  quite  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
size  must  not  be  too  thick,  and  when  mixed  with  the  whiting 
should  not  be  so  hot  as  the  preliminary  coat  of  size. 


52  PKACIICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Polisllillg. — When  the  prepared  frames  are  (piile  dry,  clean 
and  poHsh  them.  To  do  this,  wet  a  small  piece  at  a  time,  and, 
with  a  smooth,  fine  piece  of  cloth,  dipped  in  water,  rub  the  part  till 
all  the  bumps  and  inequalities  are  removed;  and  for  those  parts 
where  the  fingers  will  not  enter,  as  the  mouldings,  etc.,  wind  the 
wet  cloth  round  a  piece  of  wood,  and  by  this  means  make  the  sur- 
face all  smooth  and  even  alike. 

Where  there  is  car\ed  work,  etc.,  it  will  sometimes  be  necessary 
to  bring  the  mouklings  to  their  original  sharpness  by  means  of 
chisels,  gouges,  etc.,  as  the  preparation  will  be  apt  to  fill  up  all  the 
finer  parts  of  tlie  work,  which  must  be  thus  restored.  It  is^ome- 
limes  the  practice,  after  jmlishmg,  to  go  over  the  work  one  e  with 
fine  yellow  or  Roman  ochre ;  but  this  is  rarely  necessar\-. 

Applying  ttie  Size. — Select  the  proper  gold  size  trom  the 
receipts  previously  given  ;  add  parchment  size  until  it  will  just  flow 
from  the  brush ;  make  it  quite  hot,  and  apply  it  to  the  work  with  a 
very  soft  brush,  taking  care  not  to  make  the  first  coat  too  thick; 
let  it  dry  and  give  two  or  three  successive  coats,  after  the  last  brush- 
ing it  with  a  stiff  brush  to  remove  any  inequalities.  The  work  is 
then  ready  for  the  gold. 

Laying  the  Gold. — Tbe  manipulation  of  the  gold-leaf  has 
been  described  under  the  heading  Oil-Gilding.  In  the  process 
now  being  described,  the  size  used  (being  water-size,  which  as  pre- 
viously explained  is  permitted  to  become  hard  and  dry  after  being 
a[)plied)  must  be  moistened  to  cause  the  gold-leaf  to  adhere  to  it. 
P'or  this  purpo.se,  with  a  long-haired  camel-hair  j^encil,  dipped  in 
water,  go  over  as  much  of  the  work  as  you  intend  the  piece  of 
gold  to  cover;  then  lay  the  gold  upon  it  in  the  manner  previously 
explained.  Be  sure  that  the  i)art  to  which  the  gold  is  applied  is 
sufficiently  wet;  indeed  it  must  be  floating,  or  the  gold  will  be  a|)t 
to  crack.  Proceed  in  this  manner  a  little  at  a  time,  and  do  not 
attempt  to  cover  too  much  at  once,  until  by  experience  you  are 
able  to  handle  the  gold  with  freedom.  In  proceeding  with  the 
work,  if  any  flows  or  cracks  ajjpear,  immediately  apply  a  portion  of 
gold  sufificieut  to  cover  them.     Sometimes  when  the  gold  does  not 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  53 

appear  to  adhere  sufficiently  tight,  it  will  be  necessary  to  draw  a 
j)encil  quite  tilled  with  water  close  to  the  edge  of  the  gold,  that  the 
water  may  run  underneath  it  and  soften  the  size. 

Burnishing.—  When  the  work  is  covered  with  gold,  set  it 
bv  to  dr)' ;  there  is  a  particular  state  or  degree  of  dryness,  known 
only  bv  experience  in  which  the  moulding  is  in  a  fit  state  for 
burnishing;  it  will  probably  be  ready  to  burnish  in  about  eight  or 
ten  hours,  but  it  will  depend  on  the  warmth  of  the  room  or  state 
of  the  air. 

When  it  is  ready,  those  parts  intended  to  be  burnished  must  be 
dusted  with  a  soft  brush;  then  wiping  the  burnisher  with  a  piece 
of  soft  wash-leather  (cpiite  dry)  begin  to  burnish  about  an  inch  or 
two  in  length  at  a  tune,  taking  care  not  to  bear  too  hard,  but  with 
a  gentle  and  quick  motion,  applying  the  tool  until  all  the  parts  of 
the  surface  are  equally  bright. 

Matting  or  Dead  Gold. — Certain  portions  only  of  the 
work  are  burnished,  according  to  the  fancy,  and  the  facility  with 
which  the  burnishing-tool  can  be  applied ;  the  remaming  parts  are 
now  to  be  deprived  of  their  metallic  lustre,  to  make  a  more  effective 
contrast  with  the  burnishing.  Hie  i)arts  thus  treated  are  said  to 
be  matted  or  dead-gold.     The  process  is  as  follow  s  : 

Grind  some  vermilion  or  yellow  ochre  very  fine,  and  mix  a  very 
small  portion  either  with  the  parchment  size  or  with  the  white  of 
an  egg,  and  with  a  very  soft  brush  lay  it  evenly  on  the  parts  to  be 
dulled ;  if  well  done,  it  will  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  work. 
Previous  to  matting,  the  work  must  be  well  cleared  of  superfiuous 
gold,  by  means  of  a  soft  brush. 

Finishing. — In  elaborate  works  it  is  frequently  impossible 
to  lay  gold-leaf  into  all  the  intricacies  of  an  elaborate  design,  and 
the  parts  thus  left  bare  must  be  finished  by  touching  up  with  a 
small  brush  charged  with  shell-gold,  or  gold-powder,  mixed  with 
gum-Arabic  to  the  proper  consistency.  The  following  receipt  de- 
scribes the  preparation  of  shell-gold  : 

Shell  Gold. — Take  any  quantity  of  leaf-gold  and  grind  it 
with  a  small  portion  of  honey,  to  a  fine  powder,  add  a  little  gum- 


54  PRACriCAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CAnTXE'l-MAKERS, 

Arabic   and   sugar- candy,    with   a    little   water,  and   mix   it   well 
together ;  let  it  dry. 

Silver  Size. — Grind  pipe-clay  fine  with  a  little  black-lead 
and  good  soap,  anil  add  parchment-size  as  directed  for  gold-size. 

Composition  for  Frame  Ornaments.— i  lie  orna- 
ments for  gilded  mirror-frames,  etc.,  are  usually  moulded  from 
some  plastic  substance  that  is  somewhat  tougher  and  more  durable 
than  the  ordinary  gilding  foundation  of  whiting  and  size.  'i"he 
proper  moulds  being  prepared  they  are  thoroughly  rubbed  upon 
the  inside  with  sweet  oil,  and  the  composition  firmly  pressed  in ; 
after  removing  the  mould  the  cast  may  be  dried  by  a  gentle  heat, 
or  while  still  plastic  it  can  be  applied  in  its  j^roper  place  and  bent 
into  any  position.     Following  are  receipts  for  composition : 

Dissolve  I  lb.  of  glue  in  i  gallon  of  water.  In  another  kettle  boil 
together  2  lbs.  of  resin,  i  gill  of  Venice  turpentine,  and  i  pint  of 
linseed  oil;  mix  altogether  in  one  kettle,  and  boil  and  stir  till  the 
water  has  evaporated.  Turn  the  whole  into  a  tub  of  finely-rolled 
whiting,  and  work  it  till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  dough. 

Boil  7  lbs.  of  best  glue  in  7  half-pints  of  water.  Melt  3  lbs.  of 
white  resin  in  3  i)ints  of  raw  linseed  oil.  When  the  above  has 
been  well  boiled  put  them  into  a  large  vessel  and  simmer  them  for 
half  an  hour,  stirring  the  mixture  and  taking  care  that  it  does 
not  boil  over.  The  whole  must  then  be  turned  into  a  box  of 
whiting  rolled  and  sifted,  and  mixed  till  it  is  of  the  consistency  of 
dough. 

To  Manipulate  Gold  Leaf.— Get  a  piece  of  paper,  thin 
enough  to  show  shadow  of  gold-leaf  through,  slightly  wax  it,  lay  it 
on  gold-leaf,  the  latter  will  then  adhere,  and  can  be  easily  worked, 
and  will  come  off  clean.  The  paper  should  be  slightly  larger  than 
the  gold-leaf,  and  the  fingers  passed  over  the  paper  to  make  the 
gold-leaf  adhere. 

Bronzing. — This  is  a  process  for  imitating  on  metal,  plaster, 
wood,  or  other  material,  the  peculiar  appearance  produced  by 
chemical  action  upon  the  surface  of  bronze  metal.  It  is  accom- 
plished by  spreading  over  the  surface  of  the  material  to  be  orna- 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNIJURE    MEN.  55 

rnented  a  very  thin  coating  of  bronze-powder,  which  is  caused  to 
adhere  either  by  applying  it  directly  upon  a  coating  of  any  of  the 
sizes  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  ])ages,  or  by  mixing  with  a  vehicle, 
such  as  gum-Arabic  or  transparent  varnish.  The  latter  is  most  de- 
sirable, as  in  the  other  case,  being  subject  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  bronze-powder  soon  tarnishes.  In  ornament- 
ing furniture,  bronzing  is  generally  employed  to  represent  gilding,  a 
variety  of  bronze  called  gold-bronze  being  used,  which  affords  an 
excellent  imitation  but  is  not  very  lasting.  It  is  usually  applied 
after  the  completion  of  the  other  finishing  processes,  the  ground- 
work being  prepared  in  the  manner  described  under  Oil-Gilding, 
and  the  size  likewise  applied  as  there  described.  A  small  wad  of 
cotton-batting  is  then  dipped  in  the  bronze  and  passed  gently  over 
the  sized  portions,  causing  the  bronze  to  adhere.  In  the  other 
method — that  of  applying  the  bronze  by  means  of  a  vehicle — the 
preliminaries  of  whiting  the  ground  and  sizing  are  not  necessary,  a 
small  quantity  of  bronze  being  simply  mixed  with  the  vehicle  em- 
ployed to  such  a  degree  of  fluidity  that  it  will  flow  easily,  and  in 
that  condition  applied  witli  a  tine  brush.  Many  i)reparations  are 
used  as  vehicles,  such  as  transparent  varnish  tlTinned  with  turpen- 
tine, gum-Arabic  dissolved  in  water,  and  gold-size  reduced  with 
parchment-size.  There  are  a  variety  of  colors  in  bronze-powders, 
and  to  produce  the  best  effect  the  size  or  vehicle  should  be  of  a 
color  similar  to  that  of  the  bronze  used;  in  gold-size  the  coloring 
pigment  is  ochre,  and  in  its  place,  for  green-bronze,  red-bronze,  or 
blue-bronze,  may  be  employed  respectively  verditer,  vermilion  or 
Prussian  blue,  a  very  small  quantity  being  sufticient.  In  bronzing 
on  painted  work  the  ground  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
color  of  the  bronze  to  be  applied. 


GRAINING  AND  COLOR  WORK. 

Graining. — This  is  a  variety  of  painting  by  which  the  grain, 
color  or  texture  of  different  woods  is  imitated.  Considerable  ex- 
perience is  necessary  to  produce  satisfactory  results,  the  mixing 
of  the  colors  to  the  right  shade,    and  the  manipulation   of  the 


56  PRACTICAL    IXFOKMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

simple  tools  in  a  manner  to  faithfully  i)iiitate  the  grain  and  mark- 
ings of  the  wood,  requiring  a  higii  degree  of  skill.  Of  course  these 
remarks  do  not  apply  to  that  variety  of  graining  in  which  only  a 
rariegated  surface  is  aimed  at,  and  no  pretensions  made  to  a  close 
imitation  of  any  wood;  that  simi)le  process  requires  neither  skill 
nor  judgment. 

The  peculiar  effect  of  graining  is  produced  by  the  use  of  several 
shades  of  paint,  the  lightest  being  first  applied;  the  design  being 
drawn  by  wiping  off  a  certain  portion  of  the  second  and  third  or 
darker  coats,  while  still  in  a  moist  condition,  the  intermediate  and 
light  shades  below  are  partially  uncovered,  the  contrast  of  the  dif- 
ferent shades  resembling  the  effect  of  the  more  prominent  markings 
of  the  grain  of  wood.  This  resemblance  is  heightened  by  pro- 
cesses called  "  stippling  "  and  "  blending  "  which,  as  indicated  by 
their  titles,  blend  the  shades  and  soften  the  lines. 

The  tools  required  are  a  stip[)ling-brush,  which  is  a  brush  with 
hairs  about  six  or  eight  inches  long;  a  kalsominer's  brush  will 
answer  the  purijose;  a  blending-brush,  wliich  is  made  from  camel's 
or  badger's  hair  and  is  very  soft;  two  or  three  steel  combs  of  dif- 
ferent sizes;  a  rubber  like  a  jjcncil-rubber,  about  the  size  of  the 
thumb  and  rounded  off  at  the  ends,  to  convenient  size. 

The  Process  of  Graining. — if  there  are  any  knots  or 
sappy  places  in  the  article,  they  should  be  covered  with  one  or  two 
coats  of  glue-size  or  parchment-size  to  prevent  them  showing 
through.  The  work  is  then  ready  for  the  paint,  three  different 
shades  being  necessary.  These  are  called  the  ground-color ;  the 
stip])liiig  color;  and  the  graining  or  oil-color,  and  they  are  laid  in 
the  order  named.  An  infinite  number  of  combinations  of  colors 
are  jjossible,  obtained  by  the  use  of  various  coloring  pigments  in 
the  difterent  coats,  and  no  two  grainers  agree  as  to  the  precise  pro- 
portion of  the  ingredients  to  be  used  in  imitating  dififerent  woods; 
we  give  a  number  of  receipts  for  graining  grounds,  and  also  for 
mixing  various  colors;  the  learner  can  vary  the  proportions  to  suit 
his  taste  as  experience  dictates,  and  to  suit  the  work  in  hand.  The 
ground  color  is  used  to  represent  the  lightest  part  of  the  grain  of 
the   wood,   the   stippling   color   the   intermediate   shades,  and  the 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  57 

graining  color  the  darkest  parts ;  a  close  study  of  natural  woods 
will  therefore  be  necessary  to  determine  the  color  and  depth  of 
each. 

The  proper  ground  being  selected  (see  Graining  Grounds) 
apply  one  or  more  coats — as  many  as  are  necessary  to  thoroughly 
cover  the  surface.  As  soon  as  the  ground  color  is  hard  the  stip- 
pling coat  may  be  applied.  This  is  prepared  by  mixing  the  dry 
pigments  without  oil,  with  either  very  thin  gum-water,  stale  beer, 
or  vinegar  containing  a  small  portion  of  dissolved  fish-glue.  The 
pigments  to  be  used,  as  stated  above,  are  usually  about  the  same  as 
those  used  for  the  ground  color,  but  of  different  proportions  to  pro- 
duce a  deeper  shade.  Apply  the  stippling  color,  and  before  it 
dries  beat  it  softly  with  the  side  of  the  stippler,  the  long  elastic 
hairs  of  which,  disturbing  the  surface  of  the  laid  coat,  cause  the 
lighter  coat  beneath  to  become  indistinctly  visible,  and  pro- 
duce the  effect  of  the  pores  of  wood.  Next  apply  the  graining 
color;  as  soon  as  it  is  laid,  take  the  rubber  and  with  it  wipe  out 
the  larger  veins  to  be  shown,  after  each  stroke  wiping  the  paint 
from  the  rubber  with  a  cloth  held  in  the  other  hand  for  that  pur- 
pose. Some  grainers  use  a  small  sponge  for  veining,  and  others  a 
small  piece  of  cloth  over  tlie  thumb,  but  the  rubber  is  probably  the 
most  convenient.  When  the  veins  have  been  put  in,  to  imitate  as 
closely  as  possible  the  markings  of  natural  wood,  tlie  various  steel 
combs  are  brought  into  use,  and  the  edges  of  the  veins,  and  some- 
times other  portions  of  the  work,  combed  with  them,  to  soften  the 
abrupt  transition  from  the  dark  to  the  ligliter  shades.  The  blender 
is  also  now  brought  into  use,  and  wherever  the  work  may  require 
it,  the  colors  are  still  more  softened  and  blended  by  its  soft  hairs. 
When  too  much  color  has  been  removed  in  veining,  or  when  a 
certain  figure,  sucli  as  a  knot,  is  required,  the  work  is  touched  up 
with  a  fine  brush,  and  again  softened  with  the  blender.  Wlien 
dry  a  coat  of  transparent  varnish  should  be  applied,  hnving  con- 
siderable oil  to  render  it  durable,  as  grained  work  is  frc(|uently 
washed. 

Ready  made  graining  colors  are  recommended  as  best  and 
cheapest. 


58  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Graining  Grounds. — Subjoined  are  a  few  recipes  for  mix 
ing  ground  colors. 

LigJit  Wainscot  Oak. — White  lead  and  yellow  ochre,  mixed  to 
the  required  tint.  Some  grainers  prefer  a  perfectly  white  ground 
for  very  light  oak  for  inside  work,  but  it  is  always  difficult  for  any 
but  a  perfect  master  of  the  art  to  proceed  satisfactorily  on  a  white 
ground,  and  the  work,  when  completed,  is  apt  to  have  a  chalky 
effect,  even  though  a  dark  varnish  be  applied. 

A  Darker  Wainscot  Oak. — Mix  while  lead,  mitldle  chrome,  and 
yellow  ochre. 

Dark  Oak. — White  lead,  Venetian  red,  and  yellow  oclu-e. 

Vety  Dark  Oak. — White  lead,  raw  sienna,  burnt  umber,  and 
Venetian  red;  or  burnt  and  raw  sienna,  white  lead,  and  burnt 
umber. 

These  colors,  mixed  in  different  proportions,  will  produce  a 
multiplicity  of  tints  suitable  to  receive  the  graining  color,  their 
strength  being  of  course  determined  by  the  greater  or  lesser  pre- 
ponderance of  white  lead. 

Mahogany  Grounds. — There  are  various  notions  extant  amongst 
grainers  as  to  the  best  grounds  for  mahogany  graining,  some  pre- 
ferring a  ground  of  a  deep  yellow  cast,  while  others  choose  one 
approaching  a  bright  red.  The  reds  and  yellows  used  are  Vene- 
tian red,  red  lead,  vermilion,  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna,  orange 
chrome,  middle  chrome,  etc.  These  colors  can  be  mixed  to  the 
tint  required,  an  addition  of  white  lead  being  made  in  each  case, 
as  the  ])ositive  reds  and  yellows  are  too  jiowerful  unless  diluted  in 
turn  by  white.  Venetian  red,  orange  chrome,  and  white  lead  are 
the  colors  most  generally  used,  jnd  these  three  will,  according  to 
their  predominance  or  subordination,  make  such  a  variety  of  tints 
that  the  most  fastidious  grainer  need  ha\  e  no  misgiving  that  the 
result  will  not  come  up  to  his  exi)ectati(jn,  if  he  exercise  due  dis- 
cretion in  mixing  the  colors. 

Rosewood  Ground. — Venetian  red,  vermilion,  and  white  lead. 
A  little  scarlet  lake  is  added  for  superior  work,  !)ut  this  of  course 
is  too  expensive  for  general  use.  Some  painters  mix  with  the  reds 
a  small  (piantity  of  raw  sienna  or  chrome  yellow. 


UPHOLSIERERS    AND    FUKNITUKI::    MEN.  59 

Bird's- Eye  Maple. — White  lead  alone  is  preferred  by  some 
grainers,  but  the  majority  of  painters  use  a  little  yellow  ochre  to 
kill  the  rawness  of  the  white,  and  this  is  much  the  better  plan  to 
adoi)t.  Beginners  are  apt  to  make  the  ground  too  yellow,  a  mis- 
take that  should  be  avoided  at  the  outset,  as  the  varnish  which  has 
subsequently  to  be  coated  over  the  work  will  give  transparency, 
and  add  a  pale  creamy  tone,  whereas,  if  the  ground  be  too  yellow, 
the  result  will  be  heaviness. 

Spirit  Graining  for  Oak.— Two  pounds   of  whiting, 

quarter  of  a  pound  of  gold  size,  thinned  down  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine ;  then  tinge  your  whiting  with  Vandyke  brown  and  raw 
sienna,  ground  fine.  Strike  out  )  our  lights  with  a  fitch  dipped  in 
turpentme,  tinged  with  a  little  color  to  show  the  lights.  If  your 
lights  do  not  appear  clear,  add  a  little  more  turpentine.  Turpen- 
tine varnish  is  a  good  substitute  for  the  above  mentioned.  This 
kind  of  graining  must  be  brushed  over  with  beer,  with  a  clean 
brush,  before  varnishing.  Strong  beer  must  be  used  for  glazing  up 
top-graining  and  shading. 

Oil  for  Graining  Oak.— Grind  Vandyke  brown  in  tur- 
pentine, add  as  much  gold-size  as  will  set,  and  as  much  soft  soap 
as  will  make  it  stand  the  comb.  Should  it  set  too  quickly,  add  a 
little  boiled  oil.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  gold-size  to  half  a  pint  of 
turpentine,  and  as  much  soap  as  will  lie  on  a  twenty-five  cent 
piece,  then  take  a  little  soda  mixed  with  water  and  take  out  the 
veins. 

To  Prepare  the  Ground  for  Oak  Rollers.— Stain 

your  white  lead  with  raw  sienna  and  red  lead,  or  with  chrome 
yellow  and  Venetian  red;  thin  it  with  oil  and  turps,  and  strain  for 
use.  When  the  ground  work  is  dry,  grind  in  beer,  Vandyke  brown, 
whiting  and  a  little  burnt  sienna,  for  the  graining  color;  or  you 
may  use  raw  sienna  with  a  little  whiting,  uml)ers,  etc. 

To  Imitate  Old  Oak. — To  make  an  exceedingly  rich 
color  for  the  imitation  of  old  oak,  the  ground  is  a  composition  of 
stone  ochre  or  orange  chrome  and  burnt  sienna;  the  graining  color 


6o  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

is  Ijurnt  umber  or  Vand)  ke  brown,  to  darken  it  a  little.  Observe 
that  tlie  above  colors  must  be  used  whether  the  imitation  is  in  oil 
or  distemi)er.      When  dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Old  Oak,  in  Oil.— ('lind  Vandyke  and 
whiting  in  turpentine,  add  a  bit  of  conuuon  soap  to  make  it  stand 
the  comb,  and  thin  it  with  boiled  oil 

To  Imitate  Pollard  Oak.— The  ground  color  is  pre- 
pared with  a  mixture  of  chrome  yellow,  vermilion  and  white  lead, 
to  a  rich  light  buff.  The  graining  colors  are  Vandyke  brown  and 
small  portions  of  raw  and  burnt  sienna  and  lake  ground  in  ale  or 
beer.  Fill  a  large  tool  witli  color,  spread  over  the  surface  to  be 
grained,  and  soften  with  the  badger-hair  brush.  Take  a  moistened 
sponge  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  dapple  round  and  round 
in  kind  of  knobs,  then  soften  very  lightly;  then  draw  a  softener 
from  one  set  of  knobs  to  the  other  wliile  w-et,  to  form  a  multiplicity 
of  grains,  and  finish  the  knots  with  a  hair  pencil,  in  some  places  in 
thicker  clusters  than  others.  When  dry  put  the  top  grain  on  in  a 
variety  of  directions,  and  varnish  with  turps  and  gold-size;  then 
glaze  u[)  with  Vandyke  and  strong  ale.  To  finish,  varnish  with 
copal. 

To  Imitate  Mottled  Mahogany. — The  ground  is  pre- 
pared witli  the  best  English  Venetian  red,  red  lead,  and  a  smalV 
portion  of  white  lead.  The  graining  colors  are  burnt  sienna,  ground 
in  ale,  with  a  small  portion  of  Vandyke  brown,  sufficient  to  take 
away  the  fiery  appearance  of  the  sienna.  Cover  the  surface  to  be 
grained,  soften  with  the  badger-hair  brush,  and  while  wet  take  a 
mottling-rollM-  and  go  over  the  lights  a  second  time,  in  order  to 
give  a  variety  of  shade,  then  blend  the  whole  of  the  work  with  the 
badger  softener.  Put  the  top  grain  on  with  the  same  color.  ^Vhen 
dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Rosewood. — Mix  verniilif)n  and  a  small 
quantity  of  white  lead  for  the  ground.  Take  rose-pink,  tinged 
with  a  little  lampblack  or  Vandyke  brown,  and  grind  very  fine  in 
oil,  then  take  a  flat  graining  brush,  with  the  hairs  cut  away  at  un- 
equal   distances,   and   cut    down    the   grain  as  if  wending  round  a 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FUKNIIURE    MEN.  6l 

knot.  When  nearly  dry,  take  a  graining  comb  that  is  used  for 
oak,  and  draw  down  the  grain.  This  will  give  it  the  appearance 
of  nature.     When  dry,  varnish. 

Another. — The  ground  color  is  prepared  with  vermilion  and 
small  quantities  of  white  lead  and  crimson  lake.  When  the  ground 
is  dry  and  made  very  smooth,  take  Vandyke  brown,  ground  in 
oil,  and  with  a  small  tool  spread  the  color  over  the  surface  in  dif- 
ferent directions  forming  kind  of  knots.  Before  the  work  is  dry, 
take  a  piece  of  leather,  and  with  great  freedom  strike  out  the  light 
veins ;  having  previously  prepared  the  darkest  tint  of  Vandyke 
brown,  or  gum  asphaltum,  immediately  take  the  flat  graining  brush 
with  few  hairs  in  it,  draw  the  grain  over  the  work  and  soften. 
When  varnished,  the  imitation  will  be  excellent. 

Rosewood  Imitation  in  Size.— Mix  Venetian  red, 
white-lead  powder,  vermilion  and  common  size,  the  consistency  of 
which,  when  cold,  must  be  that  of  a  weak  trembling  jelly.  With 
this  composition  paint  the  work  twice  over.  When  the  ground  is 
dry  take  some  lampblack,  finely  ground  in  beer,  and  beat  the  white 
of  an  egg  into  it;  take  the  flat  graining  brush,  dipped  in  the  black, 
and  put  on  the  grain.  When  dry,  stain  the  first  coat  of  varnish 
with  rose  pink,  finely  ground  in  turpentine,  and  finish  the  work  by 
giving  it  a  coat  of  clear  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Bird's-Eye  Maple.— The  ground  is  a  light 

buff,  prepared  with  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  and  a  little  vermil- 
ion or  English  Venetian  red,  to  take  off  the  rawness  of  the  yellow. 
The  graining  color  is  equal  parts  of  raw  umber  and  sienna  ground 
in  oil  to  the  proper  consistency.  Spread  the  surface  of  the  work 
with  this  color,  and,  having  some  of  the  same  prepared  a  little 
thicker,  ini mediately  take  a  sash  tool  or  sponge,  and  put  on  the 
dark  shades,  and  soften  with  the  badger-hair  brush  ;  before  the  color 
is  dry  put  on  the  eyes  by  dabbing  the  dotting  machine  on  the 
work.  When  dry,  put  on  the  grain  with  the  camel-hair  pencil  on 
the  prominent  parts,  to  imitate  the  small  hearts  of  the  wood.  When 
dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Curled  Maple.— Prepare  a  light  yellow  for 


62  PRACTICAI.    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

the  ground,  by  mixing  chionie  yellow  and  white  lead,  tinged  with 
Venetian  red.  The  graining  color  is  a  mixture  of  equal  portions  of 
raw  sienna  and  Vandyke,  ground  in  ale ;  spread  the  surface  to  be 
grained  in  an  even  manner;  then  with  a  piece  of  cork  rub  across 
the  work  to  and  fro,  to  form  the  grains  which  run  across  the  wood. 
When  dry,  varnish. 

Curled  Maple  in  Oil  for  Outside  Work.— Pre- 
pare a  rich  ground  by  mixing  chrome  yellow,  white  lead  and  burnt 
sienna.  For  the  graining  color,  grind  equal  parts  of  raw  sienna 
and  umber  with  a  little  burnt  copperas  in  turpentine,  and  mix  with 
a  small  quantity  of  grainer's  cream.  Thin  the  color  with  boiled 
oil;  then  till  a  tool  and  spread  the  surface  even,  and  rub  out  the 
lights  with  the  sharp  edge  of  a  piece  of  buff  leather,  which  must 
now  and  then  be  wii)ed  to  keep  it  clean ;  soften  the  edges  of  the 
work  very  lightly,  and  when  dry,  put  on  the  top  grain  with  burnt 
umber  and  raw  sienna,  ground  in  beer,  with  the  white  of  an  egg  beat 
into  it.     When  dry,  varnish. 

Satinwood. — This  ground  is  prepared  with  white  lead,  stone 
ochre,  and  small  quantities  of  chrome  yellow  and  burnt  sienna. 
The  graining  color  is  one-third  of  raw  sienna  and  whiting,  ground 
in  pale  ale,  very  thin  ;  then  spread  the  color  over  the  surface  to  be 
grained.  While  wet,  soften,  and  have  ready  a  wet  roller  or  mot- 
tling brush,  ill  order  to  take  out  the  lights;  blend  the  whole  with 
the  badger-hair  bru.sh.  \Mien  the  work  is  dry,  take  the  flat  brush, 
and  with  the  same  color,  put  on  the  top  again.     When  dry,  varnish. 

To  Imitate  Yew  Tree. — The  ground  is  a  reddish  buft". 
For  the  graining  color  grind  in  beer  ecpial  ])ortions  of  \'aiidyke 
brown  and  burnt  sienna,  with  a  small  quantity  of  raw  sienna. 
When  the  ground  is  dry,  s])read  the  surface  even  with  the  color, 
and  soften;  then  with  a  piece  of  cork  with  a  sharp  edge,  rub  the 
work  cross  and  cross  in  order  to  form  the  fine  grain.  When  dry, 
dij)  the  tip  of  your  fingers  in  the  graining  color  to  form  the  eyes  or 
knots,  and  put  in  the  small  touches  with  a  camel-hair  pencil. 
When  dry,  put  on  the  lojj  grain,  and  when  this  is  dry,  \'arnish. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  63 

To  Imitate  Black  and  Gold  Marble.—  I  iiis  descrip- 
tion of  marble  is  now  in  great  demand  The  ground  is  a  deep  jet 
black,  or  a  dead  color,  in  gold-size,  drop  black  and  turps;  second 
coat,  black  japan.  Commence  veining;  mix  white  and  yellow 
ochre  with  a  small  quantity  of  vermilion  to  give  a  gold  tinge;  dip 
the  pencil  in  this  color,  and  dab  on  the  ground  with  great  freedom 
some  large  patches,  from  which  small  threads  must  be  drawn  in 
various  directions.  In  the  deepest  parts  of  the  black  a  white  vein 
is  sometimes  seen  running  with  a  g'-eat  number  of  small  veins  at- 
tached to  it;  but  care  must  be  taken  that  these  threads  are  con- 
nected with,  and  run  in  some  degree  in  the  same  direction  with 
the  thicker  veins.  If  durability  is  not  an  object,  and  the  work  is 
required  in  a  short  time,  it  may  be  executed  very  quick  in  distem- 
per colors,  and  when  varnished  it  will  look  well. 

Red  Marble. — For  the  ground,  put  on  a  white  tinged  with 
lake  or  vermilion  ;  then  apply  deep  rich  reds  in  patches,  filling  up 
the  intermediate  spaces  with  brown  and  white  mixed  in  oil ;  then 
blend  them  together ;  if  in  quick  drying  colors,  use  about  half  turps 
and  gold  size.  When  dry,  varnish ;  and  while  the  varnish  is  wet, 
put  in  a  multitude  of  the  fine  white  threads,  crossing  the  whole 
work  in  all  directions,  as  the  wet  varnish  brings  the  pencil  to  a  fine 
point. 

Jasper  Marble. — Put  on  a  white  ground  lightly  tinged  with 
blue ;  then  put  on  patches  of  rich  reds  or  rose  pink,  leaving  spaces 
of  the  white  groun<:ls;  then  partly  cover  those  spaces  with  various 
browns  to  form  fossils,  in  places  running  veins  ;  then  put  in  a  few 
spots  of  white  in  the  centre  of  some  of  the  red  j)atches,  and  leaving 
in  places  masses  nearly  all  white.  When  dry,  use  the  clearest 
varnish. 

Blue  and  Gold  Marble.— For  the  ground  put  on  a  light 
blue ;  then  lake  blue,  with  a  small  piece  of  white  lead  and  some 
dark  common  blue,  and  dab  on  the  ground  on  patches,  leaving 
portions  of  the  ground  to  shine  between;  then  blend  the  edges 
together  with  duster  or  softener;  afterwards  draw  on  some  white 
veins  in   every   direction,  leaving  large  open  spaces  to    be  filled 


64  PRACTICAL    INFORM ATIOX    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

up  with  a  pale  yellow  or  gold-paint;  finish  with   some  fine  white 
running  threads,  and  a  coat  of  varnish  at  last. 

To  Imitate  Granite. — For  the  ground  color,  stain  your 
white  lead  to  a  light  lead-color,  with  lampblack  and  a  little  rose- 
pink.  Throw  on  black  spots,  with  a  graniting  machine,  a  pale  red, 
and  fill  up  with  white  before  the  ground  is  dry. 

Another.  —  K  black  ground  when  half  dry,  throw  in  vermilion,  a 
deep  yellow  and  white  spots. 

To  Imitate  Hair  Wood. — For  the  ground  color,  take 
white  lead  and  thin  it  with  turpentine,  and  slightly  stain  it  with 
equal  quantities  of  Prussian  blue  and  lampblack.  For  the  grain- 
ing color,  grind  in  beer  a  mixture  of  Prussian  blue  and  raw  sienna; 
when  the  ground  is  dry,  spread  a  transparent  coal  of  the  graining 
color  on  the  surface  of  the  work,  and  soften ;  then  with  the  cork 
mottle  by  rubbing  it  to  and  fro  across  the  work,  to  form  the  fine 
long  grain  or  mottle.  When  this  is  done,  soften  and  top  grain  in 
wavy  but  perpendicular  directions ;   varnish  when  dry. 

Graining  Grounds. — The  best  and  cheajjest  and  most 
convenient  simple  material,  for  making  grounds  for  light  oak, 
maple,  ash,  and  chestnut,  is  pure  raw  Italian  sienna,  tinted  with 
pure  white  lead,  not  the  so-called  sienna  which  is  sold  by  most 
paint  dealers  under  that  name,  but  the  genuine  article,  which  can 
be,  and  should  be  obtained  even  at  some  cost  and  trouble,  the  said 
article  being  one  of  the  most  useful  and  indispensable  articles  in 
the  paint  shop.  For  maple  ground,  of  course  the  smallest  quantity 
is  required,  it  being  necessary  only  to  change  the  white  to  the 
faintest  suggestion  of  straw  color.  For  ash,  the  ground  should  be 
a  little  darker.  For  light  oak,  more  of  the  sienna  will  be  required, 
while  for  chestnut  a  decidedly  yellowish  tone  is  wanted.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  make  the  grounds  too  dark.  Rather  in  the 
other  extreme,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  a  remedy  for  a  too  light 
ground,  in  the  application  of  a  greater  quantity  of  graining  color, 
as  also  in  the  glazing  coat;  while  a  ground  too  dark  cannot  be 
made  lighter.  For  dark  oak,  burnt  Italian  sienna  with  white  will 
produce  a  far  better  ground  than  any  other  single  color.    The  same 


UPHOLSTERKKS  AND  FUKN'l  lURK  MKN.  65 

caution  must  be  observed,  however,  in  obtaining  this  color  as 
recommended  in  the  case  of  the  raw  Italian  sienna.  The  domestic 
so-called  siennas  will  not  prove  substitutes  for  the  genuine  Italian 
pigments.  The  ground  for  black  walnut  may  be  the  same  as  for 
light  oak  with  the  addition  of  a  little  burnt  sienna  and  black. 

Mixing  Colors. — The  primary  colors  are  those  that  cannot 
be  compounded  froai  other  colors,  being  pure  m  themselves;  they 
are  three  in  number — red,  blue  and  yellow;  and  from  these  three 
all  others  are  compounded.  From  each  of  the  three  primaries  in 
combination  with  either  of  the  others,  is  derived  certain  groups  of 
colors,  termed  secondaries  and  tertiaries,  with  the  variations  of  tints 
and  shades.  All  of  these  are  regularly  classified,  and  their  combi- 
nations may  be  learned  according  to  rule,  with  great  pleasure  to 
the  learner,  and  an  almost  limitless  addition  to  his  resources.  A 
standard  authority  on  these  subjects  is  "  Chevreul  on  Color,"  which 
may  be  obtained  at  any  book  store.  The  combinations  named 
below  will  enable  the  painter  to  mix  many  colors  that  he  may 
require. 

Cream  Color. — Chrome  yellow,  the  best  Venetian  red,  and  white 
lead. 

Pearl-Grey. — White  lead  with  equal  portions  of  Prussian  blue 
and  lampblack.  The  blue  must  be  used  very  cautiously,  as  it  is  a 
powerful  color. 

Fawn  Color. —  'Qvwnt  sienna,  ground  very  fine,  mixed  with  white 
lead. 

Fawn    Color. — White  lead,  stone  ochre,  and  vermilion. 

Buff. — This  is  a  mixture  of  pale  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead, 
tinged  with  a  little  Venetian  red. 

Straw. — A  mixture  of  ])ale  chrome  yellow  and  white  lead. 

Drab. — Raw  or  burnt  umber  and  white  lead,  with  a  little  Vene- 
tian red. 

Drab. — White  lead  with  a  little  Prussian  blue  and  yellow  ochre. 

Drab. — White  lead  with  a  little  yellow  ochre  and  lampblack. 

Drab. — White  lead  with  a  little  chrome  green. 

Fitrple. — White  lead,  Prussian  blue,  and  vermilion. 


66  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABIN  FI-MAKF.RS, 

Purple. — Prussian  blue,  vermilion,  and  rose  madder  or  crimson 
lake. 

Violet.  Vermilion,  French  ultramarine,  a  small  portion  of  black, 
and  white   lead. 

French  Grey. — White  lead  and  Prussian  blue,  tinged  with  ver- 
milion; and  for  the  last  coat,  if  cost  is  no  object,  substitute  rose 
madder  or  lake  for  vermilion. 

Silver. — White  lead,  indigo,  and  a  small  portion  of  black,  as  the 
shade  may  require. 

Dark  Chest  nut. — Mix  light  red  and  black.  Use  red  ochre  when 
required  to  lighten  the  color. 

Salmon.  —  White  lead  tinged  with  the  best  Venetian  red. 

Peach  Blossom. — White  lead  tinged  with  orpiment. 

Lead. — This  is  a  mixture  of  vegetable  black  and  white  lead. 

Dark  Lead  Color. — White,  black,  and  indigo. 

Chocolate. — Vegetable  black  and  Venetian  red. 

Light   Yellow. — Lemon  yellow  and  white  lead. 

Light   Yellow. — Chrome  yellow,  white   lead,  and  red  lead. 

Light  Yellow. — Raw  sienna  mixed  with  white  lead.  If  the  color 
is  required  of  a  warmer  cast,  add  a  little  burnt  sienna. 

Stone  Color. — Yellow  ochre,  burnt  umber,  and  white  lead. 

Sto7ie  Color. — Raw  sienna,  burnt  umber,  and  white  lead. 

Stone  Color. — White  lead,  burnt  umber,  yellow  ochre,  and  a  little 
Venetian  red. 

Olive  Green. — Prussian  blue,  chrome  yellow,  and  burnt  um- 
ber. 

Olive  Green. — Vegetable  black,  chrome  yellow,  and  a  small 
portion  of  burnt  umber. 

Grass  Green. — Several  shades  of  grass  green  may  be  made  by 
mixing  Prussian  blue  and  chrome  yellow. 

Carnation. — Lake  and  white  lead. 

Imitation  of  Old  Gold.—M\\  white  lead,  chrome  yellow,  and 
burnt  sienna,  until  the  proper  shade  is  obtained. 

Colors  for  Outlines  of  Ornaments.— In  decorative 

designs  into  wliich  different   colors  enter,  attention  to  the  following 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  67 

rules  will  greatly  increase  the  beauty  of  the  work  ;  the  rules  are 
based  on  scientific  principles. 

First :  Any  color  on  a  gold  back-ground  should  be  outlined 
with  a  darker  shade  of  its  own  color. 

Second:  A  gold  ornament  on  a  colored  back-ground  may  always 
be  outlined  with  black,  provided  the  back-ground  is  not  too  dark ; 
in  that  case  outline  with  a  light  color. 

Third :  A  colored  ornament  on  a  ground  of  complementary 
color  should  be  outhned  with  a  lighter  tint  of  its  own  color,  or  a 
neutral  color. 

Fourth :  If  the  ornament  and  ground  are  in  shades  of  the  same 
color,  and  the  ornament  is  darker  than  the  ground,  the  outline 
should  be  still  darker ;  if  the  ornament  is  lighter  than  the  ground, 
no  outline  is  required. 

Tones. — Often  called  shades,  signify  colors  mixed  with  either 
white  or  black. 

Tints  are  colors  mixed  with  white. 

Shades  are  colors  mixed  with  black. 

Tempera  is  a  mixture  of  powdered  colors  with  gum-water. 

Distemper  is  a  mixture  of  powdered  colors  with  size. 

Color  Harmony  in  Grained  Work.— it  is  unques- 
tionably essential  that  every  painter  should  know  what  plain  colors 
and  tints  may  be  used  in  harmonious  contrasts  or  combinations 
with  the  various  painted  imitations  of  fancy  woods.  Green  is  en- 
tirely unobjectionable;  indeed,  it  forms  a  pleasing  contrast  with 
light  oak,  satin  wood,  bird's-eye  maple,  chestnut  and  ash — but  dis- 
cords with  mahogany,  black  walnut  and  rosewood.  Blue  is  en- 
tirely harmonious  with  all  these  latter.  Black  harmonizes  with  all 
the  woods,  as  does  white;  but  white  with  the  lighter  colored  ones 
is  feeble  and  wanting.  All  the  woods  harmonize  with  each  other 
except  black  walnut  with  mahogany  and  rosewood.  Gold  is  good 
with  all,  but  the  contrast  with  the  light  colored  ones  is  not  so  bril- 
liant as  with  the  dark-toned  woods.  The  bright  colors  in  these 
deaden  the  usually  dull  tones  of  the  black  walnut  and  detract  from 


68  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKKRS, 

it  thereby  ;  whereas  the  contrast  with  tlie  latter-named  wood,  with 
the  Hght  colored  ones,  improves  and  brightens  all  the  contrasting 
tints  and  shades.  Light  and  dark  oak  are  best  shown  by  them- 
selves in  contrast  with  each  other,  being  too  coarse  in  the  grain  to 
exhibit  with  good  effect  in  combuiation  with  maple  and  satin- 
wood.  In  color  harmony,  generally,  white  and  black  harmonize 
with  all  colors  but  green.  Gold  is  good  with  every  color,  shade 
and  tint,  but  especially  rich  with  green,  black,  purple,  carmine 
and  blue. 

Cllinese  "WllitG. —  I'lie  following  is  recommended  as  the 
best  way  to  prepare  Chinese  white: — Dissolve  as  mucii  Roman 
alum  in  as  small  a  quantity  ot  hot  water  as  is  barely  sufficient,  and 
then  mix  it  witli  two  ounces  and  a  half  of  honey.  Set  this  mixture 
to  evaporate  to  dryness  in  an  earthen  vessel,  over  a  gentle  fire.  It 
will  then  appear  like  a  spongy  sort  of  coal,  which  being  removed 
from  the  fire,  must  be  pounded,  and  the  ])owder  placed  in  shallow 
crucibles  or  cupels,  so  that  it  may  lie  very  thinly  on  them.  Expose 
these  to  a  strong  red  heat  for  an  hour ;  after  this,  the  powtler  must 
be  pounded  again,  and  being  replaced  in  the  cupels  it  must  be 
exposed  anew  to  a  strong  heat,  and  to  a  free  current  of  air  for  an 
hour  longer.  Being  then  removed  from  the  fire,  it  is  reduced  upon 
a  porphyry  slab  to  an  exceedingly  fine  powder  of  an  intense 
whiteness.  It  may  be  mixed  with  gum-water,  in  the  same  manner 
as  other  paints  are  usually  treated,  and  it  is  not  apt,  like  white  lead, 
to  turn  to  a  dusty  hue. 

Mixing  Wtlite  Lead. — To  mix  the  white  lead  it  should 
be  placed  in  a  can  or  i)ot,  and  an  admixture  of  oil  and  turpentine 
being  at  hand,  a  small  quantity  should  be  poured  over  the  white 
lead,  and  the  whole  stirred  about  with  a  stiff"  palette-knife  or  a 
stopping-knife,  till  the  dilutent  has  become  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  white  lead. 

The  mixture  may  now  be  stained  to  the  required  tint.  For  this 
purpose  the  staining  color  should  be  ground  in  oil,  and  added  cau- 
tiously to  the  diluted  while  lead,  some  colors  staining  much  more 
powerfully  than  others.  The  staining  color  should  never  be  added 
in  a  powdered  or  dry  state. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  69 

Varnish  Green,  for  Venetian  Blinds,  etc.— The 

work  must  first  be  painted  once  or  twice  with  a  hght  lead  color; 
when  hard,  grind  some  dry  white  lead  in  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  after- 
wards take  about  one-third  in  bulk  in  verdigris,  or  navy  green, 
which  has  been  ground  stift"  in  oil ;  then  mix  them  both  together, 
and  atld  a  little  common  oak  varnish,  sufficient  only  to  bind  the 
color.  When  this  has  been  applied  it  will  become  hard  in  about 
fifteen  minutes.  Add  more  varnish  to  give  a  good  gloss.  Then 
go  over  the  work  a  second  time,  and,  if  required,  a  third  time. 
Thus  you  will  have  a  beautiful  green  with  a  high  polish.  It  pos- 
sesses a  very  drying  quality,  enabling  the  work  to  be  completed  in 
a  few  hours.  The  tint  may  be  varied  according  to  taste,  by  sub- 
stituting different  greens ;  and  if  a  bright  grass-green  is  required, 
add  a  little  Dutch  pink  to  the  mixture.  This  color  is  best  used 
warm,  as  it  gives  the  varnish  a  uniform  api)earance. 

VARNISHES. 

Varnishes  are  solutions  of  the  various  resins,  commonly 
called  gums,  in  either  oil,  turpentine,  or  alcohol.  The  gums  prin- 
cii)ally  applied  are  amber,  anune,  copal,  hic,  sandarac,  mastic, 
damar  and  common  resin.  The  varnishes  are  all  applied  to  the 
surfaces  of  the  woods,  metals,  or  other  materials,  while  in  the  fluid 
state,  and  the  solvent  is  afterwards  evaporated,  leaving  a  thin  glossy 
coat  of  the  different  resins  as  a  defence  from  the  action  of  the  at- 
mosphere, or  from  slight  friction. 

Sometimes  the  resins  are  used  separately ;  at  other  times  two  or 
more  are  combined  according  to  the  qualities  required  in  the 
varnish. 

The  Gums   and   their   Qualities.— Amber.— The 

durabilit}-  of  the  varnishes  is  of  course  mainly  dependent  upon 
the  comparative  insolubility  of  the  resins ;  their  hardness,  tough- 
ness, and  permanence  of  color.  In  these  respects  amber  excels 
all  other  resins  used  for  varnishes;  it  resists  the  action  of  all 
ordinary  solvents,  and  can  only  be  dissolved  for  making  varnish 
by    fusion    at   a  high    temperature;    it    is    hard     and     moderately 


70  PKACTICAL    TX^'CRMAIION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

tough,  and  its  color  is  but  little  influenced  by  the  atmosphere; 
but,  unless  ver)'  carefully  selected,  it  is  too  yellow  for  delicate 
works  of  light  colors.  Amber  is,  however,  but  little  used  in 
making  varnishes,  principally  on  account  of  its  high  price,  but 
partly  because  the  varnish  dries  slowly,  and  does  not  attain  its  full 
hardness  for  many  weeks. 

Anime  is  nearly  as  insoluble  and  hard  as  amber,  and  the  best 
is  of  a  very  pale  color ;  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  tough  as  amber. 
The  varnishes  made  from  anime  dry  quickly,  but  are  very  liable  to 
crack,  and  the  color  becomes  deeper  by  exjiosure  to  light  and  air. 
Anime  is,  however,  extensively  used  in  making  oil  varnishes,  and 
most  of  those  called  copal  varnishes  contain  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  anime,  which  is  substituted  principally  on  account  of  its 
quick  drying  qualities. 

Copal  is  next  in  durability  to  amber;  when  very  carefully 
selected  it  is  almost  colorless,  and  becomes  rather  lighter  by  ex- 
posure ;  it  is  more  easily  dissolved  by  heat  than  either  amber  or 
anime,  and  although  softer  than  these  resins,  is  too  hard  to  be 
scratched  by  the  nail.  Copal  is,  therefore,  a  most  excellent  ma- 
terial for  varnish,  and  numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  em- 
ploy it  as  the  basis  of  a  spirit  varnish,  but  hitherto  with  only  .partial 
success.  Pure  alcohol  has  little  effect  on  copal ;  with  the  addition 
of  a  small  quantity  of  camphor,  the  greater  portion  of  the  copal  is 
dissolved,  but  the  camphor  impairs  the  durability  of  the  varnish. 
Copal  may  be  perfectly  dissolved  by  ether,  but  this  spirit  evapo- 
rates too  rapidly  to  allow  of  the  varnish  being  uniformly  applied. 
The  essential  oils  of  spruce  and  lavender  have  been  occasionally 
employed  as  solvents  of  copal,  but  not  with  sufficient  success  to 
warrant  its  general  adoption  in  spirit  varnishes. 

Oil  Varnishes. — Amber,  anime,  and  copal  are  usually  dis- 
solved for  making  varnish  by  fusing  the  gum,  and  adding  linseed- 
oil  heated  nearly  to  the  boiling  point.  They  are  then  amalgamated 
by  stirring  and  boiling,  and  the  varnish  is  reduced  to  the  required 
degree  of  fluidity  by  the  addition  of  oil  of  turpentine.  They  con- 
stitute the  more  important  of  what  are  called  oil   varnishes,  are  the 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  7 1 

most  durable  of  all,  possess  considerable  brilliancy,  and  are  suf- 
ficiently hard  to  bear  polishing.  Tliey  are  therefore  employed  for 
works  of  the  best  quality,  that  are  exposed  to  the  weather  or  to 
much  friction ;  as  coaches,  house  decorations,  and  japanning. 

Spirit  Varnishes. — Lac  and  sandarac  arc  more  soluble 
than  the  above  resins,  and  are  generally  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine;  but  sometimes  the  i)yroligneous  spirit,  commonly  known  as 
vegetable  naptha,  is  employed  as  a  cheaper  substitute.  These 
resins  constitute  the  basis  of  what  are  called  spirit  varnishes,  and 
are  employed  principally  for  delicate  objects  not  exposed  to  the 
weather,  such  as  cabinet  and  painted  works. 

Lac  is  much  harder  and  more  durable  than  sandarac,  and  is 
the  basis  of  most  lackers  for  hard  wood  and  metal,  and  also  of 
French  polish.  Of  the  three  varieties,  stick-lac,  seed-lac,  and  shell- 
lac,  the  latter  is  the  most  free  from  color,  and  the  most  soluble ;  it 
is  therefore  almost  exclusively  used  in  making  varnishes  and 
lacquers;  but  the  palest  shell-lac  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of 
coloring  matter,  that  renders  it  inadmissible  for  varnishing  works 
of  a  light  color.  In  addition,  shell-lac  also  contains  a  small  quan- 
tity of  wax,  and  other  matters,  that  are  only  imperfectly  soluble  in 
spirits  of  wine,  and  therefore  give  a  cloudy  appearance  to  the  var- 
nish, but  which  is  not  of  great  importance  in  varnishing  dark- 
colored  works,  and  may  be  in  great  measure  avoided  by  making 
the  solution  without  heat,  and  allowing  the  more  insoluble  jtortions 
time  to  be  precipitated. 

Sandarac  is  softer  and  less  brilliant  than  shell-lac,  but  is 
much  lighter  in  color ;  it  is  therefore  used  for  making  a  pale  var- 
nish for  light-colored  woods,  and  other  works  for  which  the  dark 
color  of  shell-lac  would  be  unsuited.  When  hardness  is  of  greater 
importance  than  paleness,  a  portion  of  shell-lac  is  added ;  but  when 
paleness  and  brilliancy  are  required,  a  small  quantity  of  mastic  is 
added.  When  the  varnish  is  required  to  be  polished,  Venice  tur- 
pentine is  added  to  give  sufficient  thickness  or  body. 

Mastic  is  softer  than  any  of  the  resins  previously  mentioned, 
and  is  dissolved  either  in  spirits  of  wine  or  oil  of  turpentine;  the 


72  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

latter  is  more  generally  used  on  account  of  its  cheapness.  With 
either  of  these  solvents  mastic  makes  a  varnish  of  a  very  pale  color, 
that  is  brilliant,  works  easily,  and  flows  better  on  the  surface  to 
which  it  is  applied  than  most  other  varnishes.  It  is  also  tolerably 
flexible,  and  may  be  easily  removed  by  friction  with  the  hand ;  it 
is  therefore  much  used  for  varnishing  paintings,  and  other  delicate 
works. 

Damar  is  easily  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine,  and  when  care- 
fully selected  is  almost  colorless;  it  makes  a  softer  varnish  than 
mastic.  The  two  combinetl,  however,  form  an  almost  colorless 
varnish,  moderately  hard  and  flexible,  and  well  suited  for  maps  and 
similar  purposes. 

ComniOn  Resin  is  generally  dissolved  either  in  turpentine 
or  linseed  oil  with  heat.  Varnish  made  with  resin  is  hard  and 
brittle,  but  brilliant,  and  is  principally  employed  to  make  cheap 
varnishes  for  common  purposes  in  house-painting,  toys,  and  cabinet 
work.  It  is  also  added  to  other  varnishes  in  order  to  improve  their 
brilliancy,  but  it  should  be  added  in  small  quantities  only,  as  a  large 
proportion  of  resin  renders  the  varnishes  brittle. 

The  Solvents. — Linseed-oil  is  extensively  employed  as  a 
vehicle  for  the  harder  resins,  to  which  it  imparts  softness  and  tough- 
ness, but  causes  the  varnish  to  dry  slowly ;  and  unless  the  oil  is  of 
the  purest  and  palest  quality,  well  clarified,  and  carefully  combined 
with  the  resin,  without  excess  of  heat,  it  materially  darkens  the 
color  of  the  varnish  when  first  made,  and  it  is  also  liable  to  become 
darker  by  age  after  it  is  applied.  T.inseed-oil  intended  for  the  best 
varnishes  is  clarified  by  gradually  heating  it  in  a  copper  pot,  so  as 
to  bring  it  nearly  to  the  boiling  point  in  about  two  hours;  it  is 
then  skimmed  and  simmered  for  aliout  three  hours  longer,  when 
dried  magnesia,  in  the  proportion  of  about  one-quarter  of  an  ounce 
to  every  gallon  of  oil,  is  gradually  introduced  by  stirring;  the  oil  is 
then  boilefl  fr'r  about  another  hour,  and  afterwards  suffered  to  cool 
very  gradually.  It  is  then  removed  into  leaden  or  tin  cisterns,  and 
allowed  to  stand  for  at  least  three  months,  during  which  the  mag- 
nesia combines  with    the   imi)uritics  of  the  oil  and  carries  them  to 


UPHOLSIERF.RS  AND  FURNIIURE  MEN.  73 

the  bottom,  and  the  clarified  oil  is  taken  from  the  top  of  the  cistern 
as  it  is  required  without  disturbing  the  lower  portion,  and  the  set- 
tlings are  reserved  for  black  paint.  A  pale  drying  oil  may  also  be 
made  as  above,  by  substitut'ng  for  the  magnesia  white  copperas 
and  sugar  of  lead  in  the  proportions  of  two  ounces  of  each  to  every 
gallon  of  oil. 

Linseed-oil  when  rendered  drying,  by  boiling  and  the  addi- 
tion of  litharge  and  red  lead,  is  sometimes  used  alone  as  a  cheap 
extempore  varnish.  In  boiling  linseed  oil,  it  is  heated  gradually  to 
bring  it  to  the  boiling  point  in  about  two  hours  ;  it  is  then  skimmed, 
and  well-dried  litharge  and  red  lead,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
three  ounces  of  each  to  every  gallon  of  oil,  are  slowly  sprinkled  in, 
and  the  whole  is  boiled  and  gently  stirred  for  about  three  hours,  or 
until  it  ceases  to  throw  up  any  scum,  or  emit  much  smoke.  It  is 
then  frequently  tested  by  dipping  the  end  of  a  feather  into  it,  and 
when  the  end  of  the  feather  is  burned  off.  or  curls  up  briskly,  the 
oil  is  considered  to  be  sufficiently  boiled,  and  is  allowed  to  cool 
very  slowly,  during  which  the  principal  portion  of  the  driers  settle 
to  the  bottom.  The  oil  is  afterwards  deposited  in  leaden  cisterns 
screened  from  the  sun  and  air.  When  the  oil  is  required  to  be  as 
pale  as  possible,  dried  white  lead,  sugar  of  lead,  and  white  cop- 
peras are  employed  instead  of  the  litharge  and  red  lead. 

Oil  of  Turpentine  is  employed  as  a  vehicle  for  most  of 
the  resins,  the  oil  varnishes  being  generally  thinned  with  hot  oil 
of  turpentine.  Mastic,  damar,  and  common  resin  are  generally 
made  into  varnishes  by  dissolving  them  in  oil  of  turpentine  alone, 
either  cold  or  with  very  moderate  warmth.  Varnishes  made  with 
turpentine  only,  dry  quicker  than  those  made  with  oil,  and  are 
paler  colored,  but  not  so  tough  and  durable.  Turi)entine  var- 
nishes hold  an  intermediate  position  between  oil  and  spirit  var- 
nishes, and  are  em])loyed  ])rincipally  on  account  of  their  cheapness 
and  flexibility.  Turjjentine  varies  considerably  in  (juality,  and  is 
greatly  im])roved  by  age;  that  intended  for  varnish  should  be  of 
the  best  quality,  clear  and  limpid,  and  he  kept  for  many  months, 
or  even  years,  before  it  is  used ;  and  when   enqjloyed   alone,  as  for 


74  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

mastic  varnish,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  not  passed  tln-ougli 
an  oily  measure,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  [nocuring  small  tjuan- 
tities. 

Alcohol,  or  Spirits  of  Wine,  is  employed  for  dissolv- 
ing sandarac  and  shell-lac,  to  make  the  white  and  brown  hard 
spirit  varnishes,  and  lacquer  for  hard  wood  or  brass,  and  also  French 
polish.  The  varnishes  made  with  alcohol  dry  much  quicker,  harder, 
and  more  brilliant  than  those  made  with  turpentine;  but  if  tlie 
spirit  contains  more  than  a  minute  i)ro[)ortion  of  water,  it  will 
scarcely  dissolve  the  resins,  and  when  the  varnish  is  applied,  a  very 
slight  degree  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  w  ill  cause  the  resins  to 
be  precipitated  from  the  solution,  giving  the  varnish  a  dull,  cloudy, 
or  milky  appearance.  It  is  therefore  of  the  first  importance,  in 
making  spirit  varnishes,  to  procure  the  alcohol  as  pure  as  possible. 

Ordinary  spirits  of  wine,  however,  always  contains  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  water,  and  is  commonly  tested  for  varnish  pur- 
poses by  saturating  a  slip  of  writing-paper  with  the  spirit,  which  is 
then  ignited.  If  the  flame  of  the  spirit  communicates  to  the  paper, 
and  the  whole  is  burned,  the  spirit  is  considered  to  be  sufficiently 
good ;  but  if,  as  frequently  happens,  the  paper  should  be  so  far 
saturated  with  the  water  remaining  from  the  evaporation  of  the 
spirit  as  to  prevent  its  burning,  the  spirit  is  rejected  as  unfit  for 
varnish  purposes. 

Nearly  pure  alcohol  may  be  obtained  from  ordinary  spirits  of 
wine,  by  adding  about  one-third  its  weight  of  well-dried  carbonate 
of  potash,  agitating  the  bottle  and  then  allowing  it  to  stand  fir  ten 
or  twelve  hours,  during  which  time  the  potash  will  absorb  much  of 
the  water  from  the  s|)iril  ;in(l  fall  to  the  bottom;  the  spirit  may 
then  be  poured  off,  and  fresh  alkali  added,  and  the  process  re- 
peated until  the  potash  remains  quite  dry ;  the  alcohol  is  then  to 
be  freed  from  the  small  ])or(ion  of  potash  which  it  holds  in  solution 
by  distillation  in  a  water-bath. 

Naphtha,  or  the  spirit  procured  by  distillation  from  pyrolig- 
neous  .icid,  and  commonly  known  as  vegetable  or  wofxl  na]>htha, 
is  frequently  employed  instead  of  spirits  of  wine  for  making  cheap 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  75 

varnishes.  It  dissolves  the  resins  more  rcadil)'  th.m  ordinary 
spirit  of  wine,  but  tlie  varnish  is  less  brilliant,  and  the  smell  of 
the  naphtha  is  very  offensive.  It  is  therefore  never  employed  for 
the  best  works. 

Preparation  of  Oil  Varnishes.— The  preparation  of 

oil  varnishes  requires  the  application  of  considerable  heat,  and 
owing  to  this  and  the  highly  inflammable  nature  of  the  materials, 
the  process  is  attended  with  considerable  risk  of  setting  the  build- 
ing on  tire.  The  process,  should,  therefore,  always  be  conducted 
in  detached  buildings  constructed  ex[)ressly  for  the  purpose.  Owing 
partly  to  the  necessity  for  this  precaution,  and  the  circumstance 
that  oil  varnishes  are  greatly  improved  by  being  kept  in  leaden  cis- 
terns for  some  months  before  they  are  used,  the  preparation  of  oil 
varnish  is  carried  on  almost  exclusively  as  a  separate  manufacture, 
the  details  of  which  are  greatly  varied,  and  are  mostly  kept  secret. 

The  copper  pot  employed  to  make  the  varnish  is  called  a  gum- 
pot,  and  measures  about  two  feet  nine  inches  in  height,  and  nine 
and  a  half  inches  diameter  externally.  The  bottom  is  hammered 
out  of  a  single  piece  of  copper,  and  fashioned  like  a  hat  without  a 
brim ;  it  is  about  nine  inches  deep,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  The  upper  part  of  the  pot  is  formed  as  a  cylinder,  of 
sheet  copper,  about  two  feet  two  inches  in  height,  and  of  sufficient 
diameter  to  slip  about  two  inches  over  the  upper  edge  of  the  bot- 
tom piece,  to  which  it  is  firmly  riveted.  A  wide  flange  of  copper, 
to  support  the  pot,  is  also  fixed  just  beneath  the  lower  edge  of  the 
cylinder,  and  a  strong  iron  hoop  is  fixed  a  little  above  the  line  of 
the  rivets,  to  serve  for  the  attachment  of  the  horizontal  handle, 
which  is  made  as  a  nearly  straight  rod,  one  inch  square,  flattened 
at  the  end,  and  two  feet  eight  inches  long. 

The  stirrer  is  a  copper  rod  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  di- 
ameter, and  three  feet  six  inches  long,  flattened  at  the  one  end  to 
one  and  a  half  inch  in  breadth  for  about  eight  inches  in  length,  and 
fitted  at  the  opposite  end  with  a  short  wooden  handle. 

The  ladle,  which  should  contain  about  two  quarts,  is  also  of 
copper  beaten  out  of  the  solid,  and  riveted  to  a  handle  of  the  same 


76  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

metal,  three  feet  six  inches  long,  and  fitted  with  a  wooden  handle 
like  the  stirrer. 

The  copper jac^,  for  pouring  hot  oil  into  the  gum-pot,  is  made 
in  the  form  of  a  pitcher,  with  a  large  handle  and  a  wide  spout;  it 
contains  two  gallons.  The  brass  or  copper  sieve,  for  straining  the 
varnish,  is  about  nine  inches  diameter,  and  contains  sixty  meshes 
to  the  inch.  The  co[)per  funnel,  for  straining  the  boiling  varnish, 
is  large  enough  to  receive  the  sieve,  and  should  be  well  made  with 
lapped  seams,  as  solder  would  be  melted  with  the  heat. 

The  tin  pouring-pot,  to  hold  th.ec  gallons,  is  formed  exactly  like 
a  garden  watering-pot,  only  smaller  at  the  spout,  and  without  any 
rose.  This  is  never  to  be  used  for  any  purpose  excej^t  pouring  oil 
of  turpentine  into  the  varnish. 

A  small  broom,  termed  a  "  swish,"  used  for  washing  out  the 
gum-pot  every  time  after  use,  is  made  from  cuttings  of  cane  tied  to 
a  small  handle  like  a  hearth-broom  ;  the  head  is  five  inches  long, 
and  five  inches  round.  This  should  be  washed  in  turpentine,  and 
kei)t  very  clean. 

A  three-footed  iron  trevet,  with  a  circular  top,  is  employed  to 
support  the  gum-pot.  The  feet  of  the  trevet  are  about  sixteen 
inches  in  height,  and  spread  wider  at  the  bottom  than  the  top, 
which  is  made  of  such  a  size  that  the  j)Ot  will  fit  easily  into  it,  the 
fiange  resting  on  the  top. 

An  ash-bed  should  be  jirepared  near  the  fire,  ujion  which  to 
place  the  gum-pot  when  the  varnish  is  ready  for  mixing,  or  the 
heat  is  becoming  too  great.  This  is  prepared  by  sifting  some  dry 
ashes  through  a  fine  sieve,  to  make  a  smooth  layer  about  one  and 
a  half  inch  thick,  and  a  little  larger  than  the  bottom  of  the  gum- 
pot. 

Place  the  trevet  in  a  hollow  in  a  field,  yard,  garden,  or  out- 
house, where  there  can  be  no  danger  from  fire ;  raise  a  temporary 
fireplace  round  the  trevet  with  loose  bricks,  after  the  same  manner 
that  plumbers  make  their  furnaces;  then  make  up  a  good  fire  with 
either  coke,  coal,  or  wood  charcoal,  which  is  far  j^referable ;  let 
the  fire  burn  to  a  good  strong  heat,  set  on  the  gum-pot  with  three 
pounds  of  gum  copal ;  observe  that  if  the  fire  surround  the  gum- 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNI'JURE    MEN.  77 

pot  any  higher  inside  than  the  gum,  it  is  in  great  danger  of  taking 
fire.  As  soon  as  the  gum  begins  to  fuse  and  steam,  put  in  the 
copper  stirrer,  and  keep  cutting,  dividing,  and  stiriing  tlic  gum  to 
;issist  its  fusion ;  and  if  it  feels  lumpy  and  not  fluid,  and  rises  to 
the  mitldle  of  the  pot,  lift  it  from  the  fire  and  set  it  on  the  ash-bed, 
and  keep  stirring  until  it  goes  down  (in  tlie  mean  time  let  the  fire 
be  kept  briskly  up) ;  then  set  on  the  gum- pot  again,  and  keep 
stirring  until  the  gum  appears  fluid  like  oil,  vvliich  is  to  be  known 
by  lifting  up  the  stirrer  so  far  as  to  see  the  blade.  Observe,  that 
if  the  gum  does  not  appear  quite  fluid  as  oil,  carry  it  to  the  ash- 
bed  whenever  it  rises  to  the  middle  of  the  pot,  and  stir  it  down 
again  (keep  up  a  brisk  fire),  put  on  the  pot  and  keep  stirring  until 
the  gum  rises  above  the  blade  of  the  stirrer ;  call  out  to  the  assist- 
ant "  be  ready!  "  He  is  then,  with  both  hands,  to  lay  hold  of  the 
copper-pouring  jack,  charged  with  (one  gallon)  clarified  oil,  and 
lean  the  spout  about  one  inch  and  a  half  over  the  edge  of  the  gum- 
pot.  Let  him  keep  himself  firm,  steady,  and  collected,  and  not 
flinch,  spill,  or  pour  the  oil,  which  would  perhaps  set  all  on  fire. 
Observe,  when  the  gum  rises  within  five  inches  of  the  pot-mouth, 
call  out,  "  pour !  "  The  assistant  is  then  to  pour  in  the  oil  very 
slowly  until  towards  the  last,  the  maker  stirring  during  the  pouring. 
If  the  fire  at  this  time  is  strong  and  regular,  in  about  eight  or  ten 
minutes  tlie  gum  and  oil  will  concentrate  and  become  quite  clear; 
this  is  to  be  tested  by  taking  a  piece  of  broken  window-glass  in  the 
left  hand,  and  with  the  right  lifting  up  the  stirrer  and  dropping  a 
portion  of  the  varnish  on  it ;  if  it  appears  clear  and  transparent,  the 
oil  and  gum  are  become  concentrated  or  joined  together.  It  is 
now  to  be  further  boiled  until  it  will  string  between  the  finger  and 
thumb;  this  is  known  by  once  every  minute  dropping  a  portion  on 
the  glass  and  taking  a  little  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb.  If 
it  is  boiled  enough  it  will  stick  strong  and  string  out  into  fine  fila- 
ments, like  bird-lime;  but  when  not  boiled  enough,  it  is  soft,  thick, 
and  greasy  without  being  stringy.  The  moment  it  is  boiled  enough, 
carry  it  from  the  fire  to  the  ash-bed,  where  let  it  remain  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  minutes,  or  until  it  is  cold  enough  to  be  mixed ;  have  at 
hand  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine  to  fill   the  pouring- 


78  PRACTICAL    INFORMAITON    FOR    CABINET-MAKKRS, 

pot  (two  gallons);  begin  and  pour  out  with  a  small  stream,  gra- 
dually increasing  it,  and  if  the  varnish  rises  rapidly  in  the  pot,  keep 
stirring  it  constantly  at  the  surface  with  the  stirrer  to  break  the 
bubbles,  taking  care  not  to  let  the  stirrer  touch  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  for  if  it  should,  the  oil  of  turpentine  would  be  in  part  converted 
into  vapor,  and  the  varnish  would  run  over  the  pot  in  a  moment ; 
therefore,  during  the  mixing,  keep  constantly  stirring  as  well  as 
pouring  in  at  the  same  time.  Have  also  a  copper  ladle  at  hand, 
and  if  it  should  so  far  rise  as  to  be  unmanageable,  let  the  assistant 
take  the  ladle  and  cool  it  down  with  it,  lifting  up  one  ladleful  after 
another,  and  letting  it  fall  into  the  pot.  As  soon  as  the  varnish 
is  mixed,  put  the  varnish  sieve  in  the  copper  funnel  placed  in  the 
carrying  tin,  and  strain  the  varnish  immediately ;  empty  it  into 
open-mouthed  jars,  tins,  or  cisterns,  there  let  it  remain  and  settle, 
and  the  longer  it  remains  the  better  it  will  become.  Recollect 
when  it  is  taken  out,  not  to  disturb  or  raise  up  the  bottoms. 

Instead  of  the  ash-bed,  a  circle  of  loose  bricks  four  courses  high 
may  be  erected  to  support  the  gum-pot.  The  bricks  are  to  be  laid 
so  that  when  the  gum-pot  is  set  within,  it  will  rest  securely  by  its 
flange  with  the  bottom  about  six  inches  from  the  ground.  Upon 
this  brick -stand  set  the  pot  every  time  there  is  occasion  to  carry 
it  from  the  fire.  Near  the  stand  an  iron  trevet  may  be  placed, 
upon  which  to  turn  the  gum-pot  every  time  after  it  is  washed  out, 
as,  by  so  doing,  it  will  always  be  kept  clean,  and  cool  gradually, 
for  by  cooling  rapidly  copper  oxidizes  very  quickly.  Near  the 
trevet  have  the  swish  broom  and  also  a  large  wide  tin  jack  or 
other  vessel  to  receive  the  washings.  Have  also  at  hand  a  copper 
ladle,  and  a  tin  bottle  with  turj^entine,  for  washing  with  when 
wanted. 

The  moment  the  maker  has  emptied  the  gum-pot,  throw  into  it 
half  a  gallon  of  turpentine,  and  with  the  swish  immediately  wash 
it  from  top  to  bottom,  and  instantly  empty  it  into  the  tin  jack. 
Afterwards,  with  a  large  piece  of  woollen  rag  dipped  in  pumice 
])Owder,  wash  and  polish  every  part  of  the  inside  of  the  pot,  per- 
forming the  same  operation  on  the  ladle  and  stirrer;  rinse  them 
vvith   the  turpentine  washings,  and  at  last    rinse  them    altogether 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FUKNIIURE    MEN.  79 

with  clean  turpentine,  which  also  put  to  the  washings,  wipe  dry, 
with  a  clean  soft  rag,  the  pot,  ladle,  stirrer,  and  funnel,  and  lay  the 
sieve  so  as  to  be  completely  covered  with  turpentine,  which  will 
always  keep  it  from  gumming  up. 

Eight  pounds  of  copal  takes  in  general  from  sixteen  to  twenty 
minutes  in  fusing,  from  the  beginning  till  it  gets  clear  like  oil;  but 
the  time  depends  very  much  on  the  heat  of  the  fire  and  the  atten- 
tion of  the  operator.  During  the  first  twelve  minutes  while  the 
gum  is  fusing  the  assistant  must  look  to  the  oil,  which  is  to  be 
heated  at  a  separate  fire  in  a  copper  pot,  large  enough  to  contain 
double  the  quantity  required.  The  oil  should  be  brought  to  a 
smart  simmer,  for  it  ought  neither  to  be  too  hot  nor  too  cold,  but 
in  appearance  beginning  to  boil,  which  the  assistant  is  strictly  to 
observe ;  and,  when  ready,  call  to  the  maker ;  then  immediately 
each  take  hold  of  one  handle  of  the  boilmg-pot  and  carry  it  to  the 
ash-bed,  the  maker  instantly  returning  to  the  gum-pot,  while  the 
assistant  ladles  the  hot  oil  into  the  copper-pouring  jack,  bringing 
it  and  placing  it  at  the  back  of  the  gum-pot  until  wanted. 

A  thick  piece  of  old  carpet,  free  from  holes,  should  be  kept  at 
hand  in  case  the  gum-pot  should  take  fire ;  should  this  happen, 
let  the  assistant  throw  the  piece  of  carpet  quickly  over  the  blazing 
pot,  holding  it  down  all  round  the  edges ;  and  in  a  few  minutes  the 
fire  will  be  smothered. 

After  the  oil  has  been  mixed  with  the  gum,  a  brisk  strong  fire 
should  be  kept  up,  until  a  scum  or  froth  rises  and  covers  all  the 
surface  of  the  contents,  when  it  will  begin  to  rise  rapidly.  Observe 
when  it  rises  about  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  pot,  carry  it  from 
the  fire,  and  set  it  on  the  ash-bed,  or  brick-stand,  stir  it  down 
again ;  and  if  driers  are  to  be  added,  scatter  in  a  few  by  a  little  at 
a  time;  keep  stirring,  and  if  the  frothy  head  goes  down,  put  the 
pot  on  the  fire,  and  introduce  gradually  the  remainder  of  the 
driers,  always  carrying  the  pot  to  the  ash-bed  when  the  froth  rises 
about  two-thirds  the  height  of  the  pot.  In  general,  if  the  fire  be 
good,  all  the  time  a  pot  requires  to  boil  from  the  time  of  the  oil 
being  poured  in,  is  about  three  and  a  half  or  four  hours;  but  time 
is  no  criterion  for  a  beginner  to  judge  by,  as  it  may  vary  according 


8o  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

to  the  weather,  the  quahty  of  the  ingredients,  or  the  heat  of  the 
fire;  therefore,  about  the  third  hour  of  boihiig,  try  it  on  a  bit  of 
glass,  and  keep  boiling  it  until  it  feels  strong  and  stringy  between 
the  fingers,  as  before  mentioned. 

The  foregoing  directions  are,  with  very  little  differences,  to  be 
observed  in  making  all  sorts  of  copal  varnishes,  excepting  the 
quantities  of  oil,  gum,  etc.,  a  few  of  which  will  be  now  added. 

Copal   Varnish   for   Pine   Paintings,    etc.— Fuse 

eight  pounds  of  the  very  cleanest  pale  African  gum  copal,  and, 
when  completely  run  fluid,  pour  in  two  gallons  of  hot  oil ;  let  it 
boil  until  it  will  string  very  strong;  and  in  about  fifteen  minutes,  or 
while  it  is  yet  very  hot,  pour  in  three  gallons  of  turpentine,  got 
from  the  top  of  a  cistern.  Perhaps  during  the  mixing  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  the  turpentine  will  escape,  but  the  varnish  will  be 
so  much  the  brighter,  transparent,  and  fluid ;  and  will  work  freer, 
dry  quickly,  and  be  very  solid  and  durable  when  dry.  After  the 
varnish  has  been  strained,  if  it  is  found  too  thick,  before  it  is  quite 
cold,  heat  as  much  turpentine  and  mix  with  it  as  will  bring  it  to  a 
proper  consistence. 

Artist's  Virgin  Copal. — From  a  select  parcel  of  scraped 
African  gum  copal,  before  it  is  broken,  pick  out  the  very  fine  trans- 
parent pieces,  which  ai)pear  round  and  pale,  like  drops  of  crystal ; 
break  these  very  small;  dry  them  in  the  sim,  or  by  a  very  gentle 
fire.  Afterwards,  when  cool,  bruise  or  pound  tliem  into  a  coarse 
powder;  then  procure  some  broken  bottles  or  flint-glass,  and  boil 
the  same  in  soft  water  and  soda;  then  bruise  it  into  a  coarse 
powder,  like  the  gum;  boil  it  a  second  time,  and  strain  the  water 
from  it,  washing  it  with  three  or  four  waters,  that  it  may  be  per- 
fectly clean  and  free  from  grease  or  any  impurity;  dry  it  before 
the  fire,  or  upon  a  plate  set  in  an  oven.  When  thoroughly  dry, 
mix  2  lbs.  of  the  powdered  glass  with  3  lbs.  of  the  powdered  copal ; 
after  mixing  them  well,  put  them  into  the  gum-pot,  and  fuse  the 
gum;  keep  stirring  all  the  time;  the  glass  will  prevent  the  gum 
from  adhering  together,  so  that  a  very  moderate  fire  will  cause  the 
gum  to  fuse.     When  it   appears  sufficiently  run,  have  ready  three 


UI'HOLS'IERKRS    AND    FUKNIIUKK    iMKN.  8l 

quarts  of  clarified  oil,  very  hot,  to  pour  in.  Afterwards,  let  it  boil 
until  it  strings  freely  between  the  fingers.  Begin  and  mix  it  rather 
hotter  than  if  it  were  body  varnish,  for,  as  there  is  but  a  small 
quantity,  it  will  l)e  sooner  cold;  pour  in  5  (juarts  of  old  turpentine, 
strain  it  immediately,  and  pour  it  into  an  open  jar,  or  large  glass 
bottle;  ex})ose  it  to  the  air  and  light,  but  keep  it  both  from  the 
sun  and  moisture  until  it  is  of  a  sufficient  age  for  use.  This  is  the 
finest  copal  varnish  for  fine  paintings. 

Cabinet  Varnish. — Fuse  seven  pounds  of  very  fine  African 
gum-copal ;  when  well  dissolved,  pour  in  half  a  gallon  of  pale  clari- 
fied oil;  and  when  clear  mix  with  it  three  gallons  of  turi)entine; 
afterwards  strain  it,  and  put  it  aside  for  use.  This  if  properly 
boiled,  will  dry  in  ten  minutes ;  but  if  too  strongly  boiled,  will  not 
mix  at  all  with  the  turpentine;  and  sometimes,  when  boiled  with  the 
turpentine  will  mix,  and  )et  refuse  to  amalgamate  with  any  other 
varnish  less  boiled  than  itself;  therefore,  it  requires  a  nicety  which 
is  only  to  be  learned  from  practice.  This  varnish  is  very  apt  to 
chill  all  other  oil  varnishes  to  which  it  may  be  added,  and  is  prin- 
cipally employed  as  a  quick  drying  varnish  for  the  occasional  use 
of  japanners,  cabinet,  and  coach-])ainters.  Cabinet  varnish  is, 
however,  more  generally  made  with  anime  than  copal. 

Best  Body  Copal  Varnish  for  Polishing.— Fuse 

eight  pounds  of  fine  African  gum-copal,  add  two  gallons  of  clarified 
oil;  boil  it  very  slowly  for  four  or  five  hours,  until  quite  stringy, 
and  mix  it  off  with  three  and  a  half  gallons  of  turpentine. 

The  above  varnishes  being  made  of  the  finest  copal  without 
driers  are  the  palest  and  best  of  the  copal  varnishes,  possessing 
great  fluidity  and  pliability,  but  they  are  rather  slow  in  drying  and 
retain  for  months  so  much  softness  that  they  will  not  polish  well, 
until  they  give  out  a  moisture  and  become  hard ;  after  which  they 
are  very  durable.  When  paleness  is  not  of  primary  imi)ortance  a 
second  quality  of  gum  is  used,  and  when  the  varnish  is  required  to 
dry  quickly,  sugar  of  lead  or  white  copperas  are  introduced  as 
driers,  either  singly  or  combined,  in  the  proportion  of  from  half  a 
pound  to  one   pound  to  each  of  the  quantities  above   quoted,  but 


82 


PRACTICAL    INKuK.MATlON    FOR    CABINET-MAKKRS, 


driers  are  always  injurious  to  the  color,  brilliancy,  and  durabilily  of 
varnishes.  When  a  varnish  is  required  that  will  dry  quick  and 
hard  without  driers,  gum  anime  is  substituted  for  the  copal,  but  it 
is  less  durable  and  becomes  darker  by  age.  Frequently,  anime 
varnish  is  mixed  with  copal  varnish  by  the  maker  while  both  are 
hot,  in  different  proportions  according  to  the  quality  required;  one 
pot  of  tlie  anime  to  two  of  copal  being  used  for  a  moderately 
quick  drying  body-varnish  of  good  quality;  and  two  pots  of  anime 
to  one  of  copal  for  a  quicker  drying  body-varnish  of  common 
quality. 

Carriage  Varnish  is  made  much  the  same  as  common 
body-varnish,  except  that  to  eight  jiounds  of  gum  of  secoml 
quality  about  two  and  a  half  gallons  of  oil  and  five  and  a  half  gal- 
lons of  turpentine  are  used  with  driers.  This  varnish  is  boiled 
until  very  stringy,  and  is  used  for  the  wheels  and  under  framework 
of  coaches  and  other  objects  not  requiring  to  be  i)olished;  it  is  in- 
termediate in  quality  between  body  varnish  and  tlie  following. 

Wainscot  Varnish  consists  of  eight  pounds  of  second 
quality  gum  anime,  three  gallons  of  clarified  oil,  one-cjuarter  pound 
of  litharge,  one-quarter  pound  of  dried  sugar  of  lead,  one-quarter 
pound  of  copperas,  well  boiled  until  it  strings  very  strong,  mixed 
with  five  and  a  half  gallons  of  turpentine.  This  varnish  dries 
quickly,  and  is  principally  used  for  house-painting  and  jai)anning. 
When  a  darker  varnish  is  required,  as  for  mahogany,  a  small  por- 
tion of  gold-size  may  be  mixed  with  it. 

Pale  Amber  Varnish.— Fuse  six  pounds  of  fine-picked 
very  pale  transparent  amber  in  the  gum-pot,  and  pour  in  two  gal- 
lons of  hot  clarified  oil.  Boil  it  until  it  strings  very  strong.  Mix 
with  four  gallons  of  turpentine.  This  will  be  as  fine  as  body  copal, 
will  work  very  free,  and  flow  well  upon  any  work  it  is  applied  to ; 
it  dries  slowly,  but  becomes  very  hard,  and  is  the  most  durable  of 
all  varnishes.  It  is  very  excellent  to  mix  in  coi)al  varnishes,  to 
give  to  them  a  hard  and  durable  quality.  Amber  varnish  is,  how- 
ever, but  little  used,  on  account  of  its  expense. 

In   making  all  the  above  varnishes,  it  should   be  observed  that 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  83 

the  more  minutely  the  gum  is  fused,  the  greater  the  quantity  and 
the  stronger  the  produce.  The  more  regular  and  longer  the  boil- 
ing of  the  oil  and  gum  together  is  continued,  the  more  fluid  or 
free  the  varnish  will  extend  on  whatever  it  is  applied.  When  the 
mixture  of  oil  and  gum  is  too  suddenly  brought  to  string  by  too 
strong  a  heat,  the  varnish  requires  more  than  its  just  proportion 
of  turpentine  to  thin  it,  whereby  its  oily  and  gummy  quality  is  re- 
duced, which  renders  it  less  durable;  neither  will  it  flow  so  well  in 
laying  on.  The  greater  proportion  of  oil  there  is  used  in  varnishes, 
the  less  they  are  liable  to  crack,  because  the  tougher  and  softer 
they  are.  Increase  the  proportion  of  gum  in  varnishes,  the  thicker 
the  stratum  required,  and  the  firmer  they  will  set,  and  the  quicker 
they  will  dry. 

All  body  varnishes,  or  those  intended  to  be  polished,  should 
have  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  gum  to  each  gallon  of  varnish  when 
it  is  strained  off  and  cold.  All  carriage  or  wainscot  varnishes  or 
those  not  intended  to  be  polished,  should  have  full  one  pound  of 
gum  to  each  gallon.  But  the  quantity  of  gum  required  to  bring  it 
to  its  proper  consistence,  depends  very  much  ujion  the  degree  of 
boiling  it  has  undergone;  therefore,  when  the  gum  and  oil  have  not 
been  strongly  boiled,  the  varnish  requires  less  turpentine  to  thin  it, 
and  when  boiled  stronger  than  usual,  a  larger  proportion  of  turpen- 
tine is  required;  if  the  mixmg  of  the  varnish  with  the  turpentine  is 
commenced  too  soon,  and  the  pot  is  not  sufficiently  cool,  there 
may  be  considerable  loss  by  evaporation. 

Copal  varnishes  should  be  made  at  least  three  months  before 
they  are  required  for  use,  and  the  longer  they  are  kept  the  better 
they  become ;  but  when  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  varnishes  before 
they  are  of  sufficient  age,  they  should  be  left  tliicker  than  usual. 

Preparation  of  Spirit  and  Turpentine  Var- 
nishes.— In  the  preparation  of  spirit  and  turpentine  varnishes, 
scarcely  any  apparatus  is  required;  as,  generally  speaking,  the  pro- 
cess is  almost  limited  to  mixing  the  resins  and  solvent  together, 
and  agitating  the  whole  until  the  resin  is  thoroughly  dissolved. 
Heat  is  not  generally  necessary,  and  although  frequently  resorted 
to  in  order  to  facilitate  the  dissolution  of  the  resins,  in   most  in- 


84  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Stances  only  a  nioileiate  degree  of  warmth  is  recjuired ;  conse- 
sequently  the  preparation  of  spirit  and  turpentine  varnishes  is  far 
more  manageable  than  that  of  oil  varnishes,  and  entails  much  less 
risk  of  accident. 

The  resins  should  be  thoroughly  free  from  moisture,  and  are 
generally  broken  into  small  pieces,  in  order  that  they  may  be  dis- 
solved more  quickl)',  and  all  im[nnities  are  carefully  picked  out; 
after  which  the  finest  and  clearest  pieces  are  generally  selected  and 
set  aside  for  making  small  quantities  of  varnish  of  a  superior 
quality.  Sometimes,  with  the  view  of  expediting  the  dissolution  of 
the  resins,  they  are  finely  powdered  before  they  are  added  to  the 
solvent;  but,  in  this  case,  it  is  necessary  that  the  agitation  should 
be  maintained  from  the  time  the  resin  is  added  until  it  is  thoroughly 
dissolved,  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  agglutinate  into  into  one  mass, 
that  is  afterwards  very  difficult  of  solution. 

In  making  turpentine  varnishes  without  heat,,  in  quantities  of 
ten  or  twelve  gallons,  the  resin  and  turpentine  are  generally  intro- 
duced into  a  large  can  with  a  wide  mouth,  and  agitated  by  stirring 
with  a  stout  stick ;  a  number  of  wooden  pegs  or  nails  are  mostly 
driven  into  the  stick,  near  the  lower  end,  to  increase  its  effect. 

Spirit  varnishes  are  generally  made  in  smaller  quantities;  and, 
to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  spirit  the  mouth  of  tlie  vessel  is 
mo.stly  closed  and  the  vessel  itself  is  agitated.  In  making  quanti- 
ties of  four  to  eight  gallons,  the  resm  and  solvent  are  sometimes  in- 
troduced into  a  small  cask  capable  of  containing  about  double  the 
quantity,  and  mounted  to  revolve  on  central  bearings  at  the  ends. 
The  cask  is  made  to  revolve  either  with  continuous  motion  by  a 
winch-handle,  or  with  an  alternating  motion  by  means  of  a  cord 
passed  arouml  the  barrel  and  terminating  in  a  cross-handle,  which 
the  operator  pulls  to  give  motion  to  the  barrel  in  the  one  direction, 
and  the  momentum  of  which  suffices  to  coil  up  the  cord  ready  for 
the  following  pull,  which  causes  the  barrel  to  revolve  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  and  so  on  continually. 

Quantities  of  varnish  not  exceeding  two  or  three  gallons,  are 
generally  agitated  in  a  tin  can,  rollefl  backwards  and  forwards 
ujion  a  bench  covered  with  an  old  carpet   or  a  sack;  but  whatever 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  85 

method  is  adopted  for  the  agitation,  it  should  be  continued,  with- 
out intermission,  until  the  resin  is  sufificiently  dissolved  to  prevent 
the  risk  of  its  becoming  agglutinated ;  the  time  required  for  which 
depends  upon  tlie  solubility  of  the  resm  and  the  strength  of  the 
spirit,  but  is  commonly  from  three  to  four  hours.  The  further  agi- 
tation for  the  thorough  solution  of  the  resin  may  be  either  continu- 
ous or  intermitlent,  according  to  convenience,  but  it  should  not  be 
abandoned  until  the  solution  is  perfect ;  and  when  it  is  judged  to 
be  complete,  the  varnish  is  poured  into  another  vessel  for  examina- 
tion ;  and  if  any  of  the  resin  is  not  perfectly  dissolved,  the  whole 
is  returned  to  the  vessel  for  further  agitation.  When  the  resin  is  all 
dissolved,  the  varnish  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  hours,  that  any 
impurities  may  settle  to  the  bottom,  and  the  clear  varnish  is  lastly 
strained  through  muslin  or  lawn  into  bottles,  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  few  days  before  use. 

Very  small  quantities  of  varnish  are  generally  made  in  glass 
bottles,  large  enough  to  contain  about  one-third  more  than  the 
quantity  introduced,  and  they  are  shaken  up  at  frequent  intervals ; 
but  although,  from  the  small  bulk  of  the  resin,  it  cannot  agglutin- 
ate into  so  insoluble  a  mass  as  when  larger  quantities  are  made, 
still,  when  the  agitation  is  intermitted,  several  days  are  frequently 
required  before  the  resins  are  entirely  dissolved,  as  the  solution  de- 
pends more  upon  the  amount  of  agitation  than  the  length  of  time 
the  resins  are  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  solvent. 

Sometimes,  with  the  view  of  preventing  the  agglutination  and 
facilitating  the  dissolution  of  the  resins,  coarsely-pounded  glass  is 
introduced  with  the  resin  and  solvent ;  in  this  case  the  glass  should 
be  thoroughly  washed  and  dried,  and  afterwards  sifted,  to  exclude 
all  the  smaller  particles,  which,  from  their  lightness,  would  have 
little  effect  in  preventing  the  aggregation  of  the  resin,  and  would 
be  more  troublesome  to  separate  from  the  varnish. 

When  heat  is  employed  in  making  spirit  varnishes,  the  lowest 
tem|)erature  should  be  used  that  will  suffice  to  dissolve  the  resins, 
as  otherwise  there  is  risk  of  losing  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
alcohol  by  evaporation,  thereby  reducing  the  strength  of  the 
spirit;  the  varnish  is  also  liable  to  be  made  of  a  darker  color  by 


86  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CAHIXFT-M AKERS, 

excess  of  heat,  and  those  containing  shell-lac  are  less  clear  and 
hard  when  made  with  heat  than  when  made  quite  cold,  as  the 
heated  spirit  dissolves  the  greater  portion  of  the  wax  contained  in 
the  shell-lac,  and  which  becomes  disseminated  throughout  the 
mass;  but  when  the  solution  is  made  without  heat,  the  jmncipal 
portion  of  the  wax  and  other  impurities  remain  undissolved  at  the 
bottom. 

In  making  large  quantities  of  spirit  varnish  with  heat,  a  still  and 
worm  are  sometimes  employed,  in  order  to  prevent  loss  by  evapo- 
ration ;  the  still  is  heated  by  a  steam  or  water-bath,  and  the  resins 
and  solvent  are  agitated  by  a  stirring-rod  passing  through  a  stuff- 
ing-box in  the  head  of  the  still.  Quantities  of  two  or  three  gallons 
are  generally  made  in  a  tin  can,  which  is  dipped  at  frequent  inter- 
vals into  hot  water,  and  agitated  between  every  dip  by  rolling;  but 
in  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  loosen  the  cork  every  time  it  is  im- 
mersed in  the  hot  water,  in  order  to  allow  the  vapor  of  the  spirit 
to  escape;  otherwise  the  cork  would  be  driven  out  with  great  force, 
and  some  of  the  spirit  might  be  thrown  on  the  fire  v\ith  great  risk 
of  serious  accident.  Glass  bottles,  although  convenient  from  their 
transparehcy,  should  never  be  employed  for  making  varnish  with 
heat,  as  they  are  liable  to  break  from  the  alternations  of  tempera- 
ture. They  are,  however,  often  used  for  making  small  quantities, 
and  in  this  case  the  safer  practice  is  to  heat  the  water  only  in  a 
moderate  degree,  and  to  allow  of  the  continuous  escape  of  the 
vapor  through  a  small  notch  cut  lengthwise  in  the  cork,  and  which 
may  be  closed  by  the  thumb  when  the  bottle  is  shaken.  There  is, 
however,  always  some  little  risk  of  accident  in  making  spirit  var- 
nishes near  an  open  fire,  when  much  heat  is  employed;  and  a 
water  or  sand-bath,  placed  on  the  top  of  a  stove,  so  as  to  be 
heated  only  in  a  moderate  degree,  will  be  generally  found  to  afford 
sufficient  warmth,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  most  safe  and  convenient 
arrangement  for  occasional  purposes. 

Shell-lac  never  requires  more  than  a  very  moderate  warmth  to 
dissolve  it,  and  the  solution  is  frequently  made  in  stone  bottles, 
placed   near   a   fire   and   shaken    occasionally.     When    it    is    re- 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  87 

quired  to  be  very  clear,  as  for  metal  lacquer,  it  should  be  passed 
through  filtering-paper  before  it  is  bottled. 

It  need  scarcely  be  observed,  that  all  the  utensils  employed  in 
making  spirit  varnishes  should  be  ])erfectly  clean  and  dry,  as  the 
least  moisture  or  even  a  damp  atmosphere  is  liable  to  deteriorate 
the  quality  of  the  varnish. 

Best  White  Hard  Spirit  Varnish,  to  bear  polishing, 

is  made  by  adding  two  pounds  of  the  best  picked  gum  sandarac  to 
one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine;  they  are  then  shaken  up  without  in- 
termission for  about  four  hours,  or  until  the  gum  is  quite  dissolved; 
eighteen  ounces  of  Venice  turpentine  is  then  moderately  warmed, 
in  a  water-bath,  to  make  it  fluid,  and  poured  into  the  varnish  to 
give  it  a  body ;  the  whole  is  then  well  agitated  for  about  one  hour, 
antl  afterwards  strained  and  put  into  bottles,  which  should  be  kept 
well  corked,  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  spirit ;  after  stand- 
ing about  a  week,  the  varnish  is  fit  for  use.  This  varnish  may  be 
made  sufficiently  pale  to  be  used  on  white  work,  when  the  clearest 
and  palest  pieces  of  the  gum  are  carefully  selected.  When  the 
work  does  not  require  to  be  polished,  the  proportion  of  Venice 
turpentine  may  be  reduced  one-half. 

White  Hard  Varnish  is  also  made  with  three  and  a  half 
pounds  of  gum  sandarac  to  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine,  and  when 
they  are  dissolved  one  pint  of  pale  turpentine  varnish  is  added, 
and  the  whole  are  well  shaken  until  thoroughly  mixed.  Another 
white  hard  varnish  is  made  with  two  pounds  of  gum  sandarac,  one 
pound  of  gum  mastic,  and  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine. 

White  Spirit  Varnish,  for  violins,  is  made  with  two 
pounds  of  mastic  to  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine,  and  one  pint  of 
turpentine  varnish.  This  may  be  made  either  in  the  same  manner 
as  tlie  white  hard  varnish,  or  the  ingredients  may  all  be  mixed 
together  in  a  tin  can,  placed  in  a  warm  situation  near  a  fire,  and 
shaken  occasionally  until  dissolved. 

Brown  Hard  Spirit  Varnish  is  made  in  the  same 

manner  as  white  hard  varnish,  but   shell-lac   is   generally  used  in- 
stead of  sandarac.     Thus  a  very  excellent  brown  hard  spirit  var- 


55  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

nish  that  will  bear  polishing  is  made  with  two  pounds  of  shell-lac 
to  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine;  and,  after  they  are  amalgamated, 
eighteen  ounces  of  Venice  turpentine  are  warmed  and  added, 
exactly  as  described  for  the  best  white  hard  varnish.  Another  very 
good  brown  hard  spirit  varnish  consists  of  two  pounds  of  shell-lac, 
one  pountl  of  sandarac,  and  two  ounces  of  mastic  dissolved  in  one 
gallon  at  spirit  of  wine.  A  lighter-colored  varnish  is  made  with 
two  pounds  of  sandarac,  one  pound  of  shell  lac,  and  one  gallon  of 
spirit.  After  the  resins  are  dissolved,  one  pint  of  turpentine  var- 
nish is  added,  and  the  whole  is  well  mixed  by  agitation. 

Hard-wood  Lacquer  is  made,  like  the  brown  hard  var- 
nish, with  two  pounds  of  shell-lac  to  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine, 
but  without  turpentine.  Another  hard-wood  lacquer  is  made 
with  one  pound  of  seed-lac  and  one  pound  of  white  resin,  dis- 
solved in  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine. 

French.  Polish,  is  made  in  a  great  variety  of  ways ;  but  the 
simplest,  and  probably  the  best,  consists  of  one  and  a  half  pound 
of  shell-lac  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine  without  heat. 
Copal,  sandarac,  mastic,  and  gum-Arabic,  are  frequently  used  in 
making  French  polish,  partly  with  the  view  of  making  the  polish 
of  a  lighter  color,  and  pardy  to  please  the  fancy  of  the  polisher; 
the  proportions  of  the  different  gums  are  varied  almost  infinitely, 
but  with  little  advantage.  A  polish  that  is  by  some  considered  to 
be  very  good  is  made  with  twelve  ounces  of  shell-lac,  six  ounces 
of  gum-Arabic,  and  three  ounces  of  copal  to  one  gallon  of  spirit 
of  wine.  When  a  dark-colored  polish  is  required,  half  a  pound  of 
benzoin  is  sometimes  added  to  one  pound  of  shell-lac  dissolved  in 
one  gallon  of  spirit,  or  four  ounces  of  guaiacum  are  added  to  one 
and  a  half  pound  of  shell-lac ;  at  other  times  the  polish  is  colored 
to  the  required  tint  with  dragon's  blood. 

The  shell-lac  alone  makes  the  hardest  and  most  durable  polish, 
and  it  is  a  frecpient  practice  to  make  the  polish  rather  thicker  in 
the  first  instance  than  it  is  required  for  use,  as  it  may  be  readily 
thinned  by  the  addition  of  spirit.  But  if  it  should  be  made  too 
thin  originally,  it  would   rcrjuire  to   be  thickened   by  dissolving  a 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNI'lURE    MEN.  89 

further  portion  of  shell-lac.  With  the  view  of  avoiding  any  risk  of 
the  polish  being  made  too  thin  in  the  first  instance,  the  proportion 
of  shell  lac  is  frequently  made  two  pounds  to  the  gallon  of  spirit. 
Other  resins  are  sometimes  added,  with  the  view  of  making  the 
polish  tougher.  Thus,  sometimes,  the  i)olish  is  made  with  one  and 
a  half  |)ound  of  shell-lac,  four  ounces  of  seed-lac,  four  ounces  of 
sandarac,  and  two  ounce  of  mastic  to  the  gallon  of  spirit ;  at  other 
times  the  proportions  are  two  pounds  of  shell-lac  and  four  ounces 
of  seed-lac  to  the  gallon  of  spirit. 

Bleached  Shellac— When  a  lighter-colored  lac  varnish,  or 
polish  is  required  than  can  be  made  with  the  palest  ordinary  shell- 
lac,  the  bleached  lac,  sold  under  the  name  of  white  lac,  may  be 
employed  with  advantage.  The  varnish  made  with  the  white  lac 
is  at  first  almost  colorless,  but  becomes  darker  by  exposure  to  the 
light. 

Various  modes  have  been  adopted  for  bleaching  lac  varnish. 
One  process  is  as  follows :  Six  ounces  of  shell-lac,  coarsely 
pounded,  are  to  be  dissolved  by  gentle  heat  in  a  pint  of  spirit  of 
wine  ;  to  this  is  to  be  added  a  bleaching  liquor,  made  by  dissolving 
purified  carbonate  of  potash  in  water,  and  then  impregnating  it 
with  chlorine  gas  till  the  silica  precipitates,  and  the  solution  be- 
comes slightly  colored.  Of  the  above  bleaching  liquor  add  one  or 
two  ounces  to  the  spirituous  solution  of  lac,  and  stir  the  whole  well 
together;  effervescence  takes  place,  and,  when  this  ceases,  add 
more  of  the  bleaching  liquor,  and  thus  proceed  till  the  color  of  the 
mixture  has  become  pale.  A  second  bleaching  liquid  is  now  to  be 
added,  made  by  diluting  muriatic  acid  with  thnce  its  weight  of 
water,  and  dropping  into  it  pulverized  red  lead,  till  the  last  added 
portions  do  not  become  white.  Of  this  acid  bleaching  liquor 
small  quantities  at  a  time  are  to  be  added  to  the  half-bleached  lac 
solution,  allowing  the  effervescence,  which  takes  place  on  each  ad- 
dition, to  cease  before  a  fresh  portion  is  poured  in.  This  is  to  be 
continued  till  the  lac,  now  white,  separates  from  the  licpior.  The 
supernatant  fluid  is  now  to  be  j)Oured  awav,  and  the  lac  is  to  be 
well  washed  in  repeated  waters,  and  finally  wrung  as  dry  as  pos- 
sible in  a  cloth. 


90  PRACTICAL    IXFCRMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Another  process  :  Dissolve  five  ounces  of  shell-lac  in  a  quart  of 
rectified  spirit  of  wine  ;  boil  for  a  few  minutes  with  ten  ounces  of 
well-burned  and  recently-heated  animal  charcoal,  when  a  small 
quantity  of  the  solution  should  be  drawn  off  and  filtered ;  if  not 
colorless,  a  little  more  charcoal  must  be  added.  When  all  color 
is  removed,  press  the  liquor  through  silk,  as  linen  absorbs  more 
varnish,  and  afterwards  filter  it  through  fine  blotting  paper. 

Dr.  Hare's  process,  published  in  the  Franklm  'yoiimal,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Dissolve,  in  an  iron  kettle,  one  j)art  of  pearlash  in  eight 
parts  of  water;  add  one  part  of  shell  or  seed-lac,  and  heat  the 
whole  to  ebullition.  When  the  lac  is  dissolved  cool  the  solution, 
and  impregnate  it  with  clilorine  gas  till  the  lac  is  all  precipitated. 
The  precipitate  is  white,  but  the  color  deepens  by  washing  and 
consolidation  ;  dissolved  in  alcohol,  lac,  bleached  by  the  i)rocess 
above  mentioned,  yields  a  varnish  which  is  as  free  from  color  as 
any  copal  varnish. 

A  nearly  colorless  varnish  may  also  be  made  by  dissolving  the 
lac,  as  in  Dr.  Hare's  process  ;  blenching  it  with  a  filtered  solution 
of  chloride  of  lime,  and  afterwards  dissolving  the  lime  from  the 
precipitate,  by  the  addition  of  muriatic  acid.  The  precipitate  is 
then  to- be  well  washed  in  several  waters,  dried,  and  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  which  takes  up  the  more  soluble  portion,  forming  a  very 
pale  but  rather  thin  varnish,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of  mastic 
may  be  added. 

Attempts  are  frequently  made  to  combine  copal  with  all  the 
spirit  varnishes,  in  order  to  give  them  greater  toughness  and  dura- 
bility; and  although  copal  cannot  be  entirely  dissolved,  even  in 
]>iire  alcohol,  still  a  moderate  portion  will  be  taken  up  by  strong 
spirit  of  wine  when  a  temperature  of  about  120°  is  employed  with 
frequent  agitation  of  the  varnish.  In  this  manner  a  light-colored 
varnish  may  be  made  with  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  shell-lac, 
three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  copal  to  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine 
containing  about  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  Tlie  copal 
should  be  powdered  quite  fine,  and  may  either  be  added  to  the 
shell-lac  and  spirit  at  the  connnencement,  in  wliich  case  the  shell- 
lac  should  also  be  powdered,  or  the  shell-lac  may  be  first  dissolved 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  9I 

and  the  powdered  copal  added;  bul,  in  eillier  ca^e,  it  is  only  the 
more  soluble  portion  of  the  copal  that  is  taken  u[),  and  the  re- 
mainder setdes  to  the  bottom  to  a  viscid  mass,  from  which  the 
varnish  may  be  decanted  and  strained  for  use.  Cojjal  may  be 
added  in  the  same  manner  to  the  white  hard  varnishes,  and  it  is 
sometimes  recommended  to  fuse  the  copal  and  drop  it  into  water 
before  attempting  to  dissolve  it  in  spirit,  but  the  advantage  of 
adding  copal  to  spirit  varnishes  is  very  questionable. 

Lacquer  for  Brass,  like  French  polish,  is  made  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways ;  and,  as  in  French  polish,  the  simplest  and  best 
pale  lacquer  for  works  that  do  not  require  to  be  colored,  consists 
of  shelldac  and  spirit  of  wine  only,  in  the  proportions  of  about  half 
a  pound  of  the  best  pale  shelldac  to  one  gallon  of  spirit.  Lacquer 
is  required  to  be  as  clear  and  bright  as  possible  ;  it  is,  therefore, 
always  made  without  heat  by  continuous  agitation  for  five  or  six 
hours.  The  lacquer  is  then  allowed  to  stand  until  the  thicker  por- 
tions are  precipitated,  when  the  clear  lacquer  is  poured  off,  and  if 
it  should  not  be  sufficiently  clear,  it  is  afterwards  filtered  through 
paper  into  a  botde,  which  should  be  kej)t  closely  corked  and  out 
of  the  influence  of  light,  which  would  darken  the  color  of  the 
lacquer.  This  may,  however,  be  easily  prevented  by  pasting  paper 
round  the  bottle. 

Colored  LSvCquerS. — Lacquers  are  frequently  required  to 
be  colored,  either  of  yellow  or  red  tints.  For  yellow  lints,  turmeric, 
cape  aloes,  saffron,  or -gamboge  are  employed;  and  for  red  tints, 
annotto  and  dragon's-blood  are  used — the  proportions  being  varied 
according  to  the  color  required.  Thus,  for  a  pale  yellow,  about 
one  ounce  of  gamboge  and  two  ounces  of  cape  aloes  are  powdered 
and  mixed  with  one  pound  of  shelldac.  For  a  full  yellow,  half  a 
pound  of  turmeric  and  two  ounces  of  gamboge,  and  for  a  red 
lacquer,  half  a  pound  of  dragon's-blood  and  one  pound  of  annotto. 
The  color  is  also  modified  by  that  of  the  lac  employed,  the  best 
pale  or  orange  shell-lac  being  used  for  light-colored  lacquers,  and 
dark-colored  shell-lac  or  seed-lac  is  used  for  the  darker  tints.  For 
pale  lacquers,  sandarac  is  sometimes  used  with  the  shell-lac.    Thus 


92  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

a  pale  gold-coloretl  lacquer  is  made  with  eight  ounces  of  shell-lac, 
two  ounces  of  sandarac,  eight  ounces  of  turmeric,  two  ounces  of 
annotto,  and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  dragon's-blood  to  one  gallon 
of  spirit  of  wine. 

The  most  convenient  method,  however,  of  coloring  lacquers,  is 
to  make  a  saturated  solution  in  spirit  of  wine  of  each  of  the  color- 
ing matters,  and  to  add  the  solutions  in  difterent  proportion  to  the 
pale  lacquer  according  to  the  tint  required ;  but  the  whole  of  the 
coloring  matters  are  not  generally  used  by  the  same  makers,  and 
solutions  of  turmeric,  gamboge  and  dragon's-blood  afford  sufficient 
choice  for  ordinary  ];urposes.  'l"he  turmeric  gives  a  greenish- 
yellow  tint,  and,  with  the  addition  of  a  litllc  gamboge,  is  the  color- 
ing matter  employed  in  making  the  so-called  green  lacquer  used 
for  bronzed  works. 

Another  mode  of  making  lacquer:  Four  ounces  of  shell-lac 
and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  gamboge  are  dissolved  by  agitation, 
without  heat,  in  twenty-five  ounces  of  pure  pyro-acetic  ether.  The 
solution  is  allowetl  to  stand  until  the  gummy  matters  not  taken  up 
by  the  spirit  subside;  the  clear  liquor  is  then  decanted,  and  when 
required  for  use  is  mixed  with  eight  times  its  quantity  of  spirit  of 
wine.  In  this  case,  the  pyro-acetic  ether  is  employed  for  dissolv- 
ing the  shell-lac  in  order  to  prevent  any  but  the  purely  resinous 
portions  being  taken  up,  which  is  almost  certain  to  occur  with 
ordinary  spirit  of  wine,  owing  to  the  presence  of  water;  but  if  the 
lacquer  were  made  entirely  with  pyro-acetic  ether,  the  latter  would 
evaporate  too  rapidly  to  allow  time  for  it  to  l^e  equally  applied. 

Mastic  Varnisll,  for  painting,  and  similar  ])ur))oses,  is  some- 
times made  in  small  quantities  with  si)irit  of  wine;  but,  more 
generally,  oil  of  turpentine  is  employed  as  the  solvent,  the  propor- 
tion being  about  tliree  pounds  of  mastic  to  the  gallon  of  tur[)entine. 
For  the  best  varnish,  the  mastic  is  carefully  ])icked  and  dissolved 
by  agitation  without  heat,  exactly  as  for  the  best  white  hard  var- 
nish ;  after  the  mastic  varnish  has  been  strained  it  is  poured  into 
a  bottle,  which  is  loosely  corked  and  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air 
for  a  few  weeks;  this  causes  a  precipitation,  from  which  the   clear 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FUKNIIURE  MEN.  93 

varnish  may  be  poured  off  for  use;  but  the  longer  the  varnish  is 
kept  the  better  it  becomes. 

Mastic  varnish  works  very  freely,  but  it  is  liable  to  cliill,  and  the 
surface  frequently  remains  tacky  for  some  time  after  the  varnish  is 
applied.  To  prevent  the  latter  evil,  it  is  recommended,  before  dis- 
solving the  mastic,  to  bruise  it  slightly  with  a  niuller,  and  pick  out 
all  the  pieces  that  are  too  soft  to  break  readily,  and  which  may  be 
used  for  common  varnish.  To  prevent  the  chilling,  which  arises 
from  the  presence  of  moisture,  Mr.  W.  Neil  recommends  a 
quart  of  river  sand  to  be  boiled  with  two  ounces  of  pearl-ash;  the 
sand  is  afterwards  to  be  washed  three  or  four  times  with  hot  water, 
and  strained  each  time.  The  sand  is  then  to  be  dried  in  an  oven, 
and  when  it  is  of  a  good  heat,  half  a  pint  of  the  hot  sand  is  to  be 
})0ured  into  each  gallon  of  varnish,  and  shaken  well  for  five  min- 
utes ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  settle,  and  carries  down  the  moisture  of 
the  gum  and  turpentine. 

In  making  common  varnish,  heat  is  generally  employed  to  dis- 
solve the  mastic,  and  about  one  pint  of  turpentine  varnish  is  added 
to  every  gallon  of  varnish. 

Turpentine  Varnish  is  made  with  four  pounds  of  com- 
mon resin  dirsolved  in  one  gallon  of  oil  of  turpentine.  It  requires 
no  other  preparation  than  sufficient  warmth  to  dissolve  the  resin. 
Sometimes  resin  and  turpentine  are  mixed  together  in  a  stone  or 
tin  bottle,  which  is  placed  near  the  fire,  or  in  a  sand-bath  over  a 
stove,  and  shaken  occasionally;  but  varnish-makers  generally  mix 
the  resin  and  turpentine  in  the  gum-pot,  and  employ  sufficient  heat 
to  fuse  the  resin.  This  is  a  more  expeditious  practice,  but  is  at- 
tended with  some  danger  of  fire.  When  a  very  pale  turpentine 
varnish  is  required,  bleached  resin  is  used,  and  care  is  taken  not  to 
employ  more  heat  than  is  necessary  in  making  the  varnish.  Tur- 
pentine varnish  is  principally  used  for  in-door  painted  works  and 
common  painted  furniture  and  toys.  It  is  also  frequently  added 
to  other  varnishes  to  give  them  greater  body,  hardness,  and  bril- 
liancy. 

Crystal  Varnish  is  a  name  frequently  given  to  very  pale 
varnishes  employed  for  paper  works — Such  as  maps,  colored  paints. 


94  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

and  drawings.  A  very  good  crystal  varnish  is  made  with  two 
pounds  of  mastic  and  two  pounds  of  damar,  dissolved  without 
heat  in  one  gallon  of  turpentine.  Another  good  but  more  ex- 
pensive crystal  varnish  is  made  with  equal  quantities  of  Canada 
balsam  and  oil  of  turpentine.  In  making  this  varnish,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  warm  the  Canada  balsam  until  it  is  quite  fluid,  then 
add  the  turpentine  and  shake  the  mixture  for  a  few  minutes  until 
the  two  are  thoroughly  incorporated.  The  varnish  may  then  be 
placed  in  a  moderately  warm  situation  for  a  few  hours,  and  will  be 
ready  for  use  on  the  following  day.  These  crystal  varnishes  are 
both  nearly  colorless,  flow  freely,  and  are  more  flexible,  so  as  to 
bear  bending  or  rolling,  and  either  of  them  may  be  employed  to 
make  a  tracing  paper  of  middling  quality,  by  applying  a  thin  coat 
of  varnish  on  one  or  both  sides  of  any  thin  transparent  paper,  such 
as  good  tissue  or  foreign  post-paper. 

Paper  Vamish.,  for  paper-hangings  and  similar  purposes, 
is  made  with  four  pounds  of  damar  to  one  gallon  of  turpentine. 
The  damar  dissolves  very  readily  in  the  turpentine,  either  with 
moderate  agitation  or  a  very  gentle  Iieat.  Sometimes  white  or 
bleached  resin  is  used  instead  of  the  damar,  or  the  two  are  com- 
bined. 

Water  Varnish. — All  the  varieties  of  lac  may  be  dissolved 
in  nearly  boiling  water  by  the  addition  of  ammonia,  borax,  potash, 
or  soda,  but  these  alkalies  all  have  the  eftect  of  rendering  the  color 
of  the  lac  much  darker.  The  solutions  may,  however,  be  employed 
as  varnishes,  which,  when  dried,  will  resist  the  aj^plication  of  water 
sufficiently  well  to  bear  washing,  especially  wlien  tlie  jjroiJortion  of 
alkali  employed  is  only  just  sufficient  to  cause  the  dissolution  o 
the  lac,  and  which  is  also  desirable  in  order  to  keep  the  varnish  as 
light-colored  as  possible.  The  least  color  is  given  with  diluted 
water  of  ammonia,  in  the  proportions  of  about  sixteen  ounces  of 
ordinary  water  of  ammonia  to  seven  pints  of  water  and  two  ])ounds 
of  pale  shell-lac,  to  which  about  four  ounces  of  gum-Arabic  may  be 
added.  Borax  is,  however,  more  generally  used,  and  the  propor- 
tions are   then  two  pounds  of  '^In^ll-lnr.  six   ounces  of  borax,  and 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  95 

four  ounces  of  gum-Arabic  to  one  gallon  of  water.  When  the  var- 
nish is  required  to  be  as  light  colored  as  possible,  white  lac  is  em- 
ployed. 

Sealing-Wax   Varnish,    for   coating   parts    of    electrical 

machines,  and  similar  purposes,  is  made  by  dissolving  two  and  a 
half  pounds  of  good  red  sealing-wax  and  one  and  a  half  pound  of 
shell-lac  in  one  gallon  of  spirit  of  wine. 

Black  Varnish  niay  be  made  with  three  pounds  of  black 
sealing-wax  and  one  pound  of  shell-lac  to  the  gallon  of  spirit,  or 
fine  lampblack  may  be  mixed  with  brown  hard  varnish  or  lacquer, 
according  to  the  thickness  required  in  the  varnish.  The  interior 
of  telescope  tubes  are  frequently  blackened  with  a  dull  varnish  of 
this  kind,  made  by  mixing  lampblack  with  rather  thick  brass 
lacquer,  as  little  of  the  lampblack  being  employed  as  will  serve  to 
deaden  the  bright  color  of  the  lacquer.  Mathematical  instruments 
are  sometimes  blackened  with  a  similar  thin  varnish,  and  the  sur- 
face is  afterwards  brightened  with  one  or  two  coats  of  lacquer  ap- 
plied as  usual.  Ordinary  lampblack,  however,  generally  contains 
greasy  impurities  and  moisture,  which  render  it  unfit  for  varnish 
purposes,  and  therefore  the  best  kind  should  be  employed,  or  the 
lampblack  should  be  purified  by  ramming  it  hard  into  a  close 
vessel,  and  afterwards  subjecting  it  to  a  red  heat.  In  the  work- 
shop, when  small  quantities  of  lampblack  are  required,  it  is  fre- 
quently made  for  the  occasion,  by  placing  a  piece  of  sheet  metal 
over  the  flame  of  an  oil  lamp.  A  black  varnish,  sometimes  used 
for  metal  works,  is  made  by  fusing  three  pounds  of  Egyptian 
asphaltum,  and,  when  well  dissolved,  half  a  pound  of  shell-lac  and 
one  gallon  of  turpentine  are  added. 

Varnish  for  Iron. — Take  2  lbs.  pulverized  gum  asphaltum, 
^  lb.  gum  benzoin,  i  gallon  s[arits  of  turpentine.  To  make  this 
varnish  quickly,  keep  in  a  warm  place  and  shake  often  till  it  is  dis- 
solved. Shade  to  suit  with  finely-ground  ivory  black.  Apply 
with  a  brush.  This  varnish  should  be  used  on  iron  work  exposed 
to  the  weather.  It  is  also  well  adapted  for  inside  work,  such  as 
iron  furniture,  where  a  handsome  polish  is  desired. 


g6  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CAIilNET-MAKERS, 

Varnish  for  Cane  and  Basket-Work.— Lac,  pre- 
pared after  the  following  recipe  is  used  to  cover  split  and  colored 
cane:  2^  galls,  of  good  linseed-oil  are  heated  in  a  sand-bath,  as 
long  as  a  drop  of  it,  poured  on  a  cold  stove,  does  not  run  when 
the  stone  is  inclined,  and  when  touched  with  the  finger  it  feels 
thready.  Then  is  added  first  in  small  portions,  one  pound  fat 
copal  varnish,  and  the  vessel  wherein  the  co^^al  varnish  is  heated 
must  be  large,  because  by  the  addition  of  the  linseed  oil,  a  great 
deal  of  frothing  takes  place.  When  cold,  the  required  consistence 
is  given  to  the  varnish  by  mixing  it  with  turpentine-oil.  It  soon 
dries,  preserves  a  sufficient  elasticity,  and  may  be  applied  with  or 
without  addition  of  colors. 


POLISH   REVIVERS,   ETC. 
French  Polish  Reviver. — >2    pint   linseed-oil,    i   oz. 

spirits  of  camphor,  2  ozs.  vinegar,  ^  oz.  butter  of  antimony,  )(  oz. 
of  spirits  of  hartshorn. 

Another. — i  lb.  of  naphtha,  4  oz.  of  shellac,  y^  oz  oxalic  acid. 
Let  it  stand  till  dissolved,  and  add  3  ozs.  linseed-oil. 

Furniture  Reviver. — Pale  linseed-oil,  raw,  10  oz.;  lac 
varnish  and  wood  si)irits,  of  each  5  ozs.     Mix  well  before  using. 

Furniture  Cream. — i.  Cut  in  small  pieces  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  yellow  wax,  and,  after  melting  it,  add  an  ounce  of  well 
powdered  colophony,  which  is  a  black  resin  or  turpentine  boiled 
in  water,  and  afterwards  dried.  The  wax  and  colophony  be- 
ing both  melted,  pour  in,  by  degrees,  quite  warm,  two  ounces  of 
oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine.  When  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed, 
pour  it  into  a  tin  or  earthen  pot,  and  keep  it  covered  for  use. 
The  method  of  applying  it  to  the  furniture,  which  must  be  first 
well  dusted  and  cleaned,  is  by  spreading  a  little  of  this  composi- 
tion on  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  and  well  rubbing  the  wood  with 
it,  and  in  a  few  days  the  gloss  will  be  as  firm  and  fast  as  varnish. 

2.  y^  lb.  of  beeswax  melted  in  an  earthenware  pot ;  add  grad- 
ually   i^   pint  tnrpentine,  colored  with   i^  oz.  alkanet  root ;  add 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNHURE    MEN.  97 

i^  pt.  linseed  oil ;  mix  well.  Should  be  kept  in  wide-mouthed 
bottles  for  use.  Note  — This  cream  should  not  be  used  on  newly- 
polished  furniture. 

Furniture  Paste. — If  it  is  required  to  keep  the  wood  its 
natural  color,  scrape  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  beeswax  into  half  a 
pint  of  turpentine.     Linseed  oil  will  darken  the  wood. 

Six  ounces  of  pearlash  in  a  (juarter  of  a  pound  of  white  wax,  and 
one  quart  of  hot  water;  sinniier  for  half  an  hour  in  a  pipkin. 
When  cool  the  wax  will  float  on  the  top,  which  must  be  taken  off, 
and  with  hot  water  worked  into  a  paste. 

Equal  parts  of  beeswax,  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  linseed  oil. 
Melt  well  together. 

Four  ounces  of  beeswax,  ten  ounces  of  turpentine,  alkanet  root 
to  color.     Melt  together  and  strain. 

To   Make   Furniture   Paste.— Scrape  two  ounces  of 

beeswax  into  a  pot  or  basin  ;  then  add  as  much  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine as  will  moisten  it  through.  At  the  same  time,  powder  an 
eighth  part  of  an  ounce  of  resin,  and  add  to  it,  when  dissolved  to  the 
consistence  of  paste,  as  much  Indian  red  as,  will  bring  it  to  a  deep 
mahogany  color.     Stir  it  up,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Several  Receipts  for  Furniture  Cream.— Yellow 

wax,  4  oz.;  yellow  soap,  2  oz.;  water,  50  oz.;  boil,  with  constant 
stirring,  and  add  boiled  oil  and  oil  of  turpentine,  each  5  oz. 

Soft  water,  i  gallon ;  soap,  4  oz.;  white  wax,  in  shavings,  i  lb. 
Boil  together,  and  add  2  oz.  pearlash.  To  be  diluted  with  water, 
laid  on  with  a  paint  brush,  and  polished  off  with  a  hard  brush  or 
cloth. 

Wax,  3  oz.;  pearlash,  2  oz.;  water  6  oz.  Heat  together,  and 
add  4  oz.  boiled  oil  and  5  oz.  of  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Pearlash,  i  oz.;  water,  8  oz.;  beeswax  (genuine)  6  oz.;  mix  with 
heat,  and  add  sufficient  water  to  reduce  it  to  the  consistency  of 
cream ;  for  use  add  more  water,  and  spread  it  on  the  wood  with  a 
painter's  brush,  let  it  dry,  and  polish  with  a  hard  brush  or  cloth. 

Beeswax,  3  oz  ;  pearlash,  2  oz.;  water,  6  oz.;  mix  with  heat,  and 
add  boiled  oil,  4  oz.;  turpentine  (oil)  5  oz.;  mix. 


98  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

White  Furniture  Cream.— with  the  following  receij)! 

the  vinegar  must  be  mixed  with  the  linseed-oil  by  degrees,  and  the 
bottle  well  shaken  up.  The  spirit  of  antimony  must  afterwards  be 
added,  and  well  mixed.  Six  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil,  three  ozs. 
methylated  spirit,  three  ozs.  white  wine  vinegar,  half  an  ounce  of 
butter  of  antimony. 


GLUE. 

Glue. — Glue  is  prepared  from  waste  pieces  of  skin,  horns,  hoofs, 
and  other  animal  offal.  These  are  steeped,  washed,  boiled,  strained, 
melted,  reboiled  and  cast  into  square  cakes,  which  are  then  dried. 
The  strongest  kind  of  glue  is  made  from  the  hides  of  oxen  ;  that 
from  the  bones  and  sinews  is  weaker.  The  older  the  aninnil  the 
stronger  the  glue.  Good  glue  should  be  hard  in  the  cake,  of  a 
strong,  dark  color,  almost  transparent,  free  from  black  or  cloudy 
spots,  and  with  little  or  no  smell.  The  best  sorts  are  transparent 
and  of  a  clear  amber  color.  Inferior  kinds  are  sometimes  con- 
taminated with  the  lime  used  for  removing  the  hair  from  the  skins 
of  which  they  are  made.  The  best  glue  swells  considerably  (the 
more  the  better)  when  immersed  in  cold  water,  but  does  not  dis- 
solve, and  returns  to  its  former  size  when  dry.  Inferior  glue  made 
from  bones,  will,  however,  dissolve  almost  entirely  in  cold  water. 

To  Prepare  Glue. —  To  j)repare  glue  for  use  it  should  be 
broken  up  into  small  pieces,  and  soaked  in  as  much  cold  water  as 
will  cover  it,  for  about  twelve  hours.  It  should  then  be  melted  in 
a  double  glue  pot,  covered  to  keep  the  glue  from  dirt.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  outer  vessel  full  of  water,  so  that  the  glue 
shall  not  burn,  or  be  brought  to  a  temperature  higher  tlian  that  of 
boiling  water.  The  glue  is  allowed  to  simmer  for  two  or  three 
hours,  then  gradually  melted,  so  much  hot  water  being  added  as 
will  make  it  licpiid  enough,  just  to  run  off  a  brush  in  a  continuous 
stream,  without  ];reaking  into  drops.  When  the  glue  is  done  with, 
some  l)oiling  water  should  be  added  to  make  it  very  thin  before  it 
is  put  away.     Freshly-made  glue  is  stronger  than  that  which  has 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  99 

been  repeatedly  melted.  Too  large  a  quantity  should  not  therefore 
l)e  made  at  a  time.  Glue  may  be  freed  from  the  foreign  animal 
matter  generally  in  it  by  softening  it  in  cold  water,  washing  it  with 
the  same  several  times,  till  it  no  longer  gives  out  any  color,  then 
bruising  it  with  the  hand,  and  suspending  it  in  a  linen  bag  beneath 
the  surface  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  at  66°  Fahr.  By  doing 
this  the  pure  glue  is  retained  in  the  bag,  and  the  soluble  impurities 
jiass  through.  If  the  softened  glue  be  heated  to  122°  without 
water,  and  filtered,  some  other  impurities  will  be  retained  by  the 
filter,  and  a  colorless  solution  of  glue  be  obtained. 

The  addition  of  a  little  bichromate  of  potash  will  render  glue 
impervious  to  moisture  after  exposing  to  the  light,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  methylated  spirits  will  greatly  improve  its  keeping 
qualities. 

Mixing  Glue. — A  minimum  amount  of  glue  should  be  used 
in  good  work,  and  it  should  be  applied  as  hot  as  possible.  The 
surfaces  of  the  wood  to  be  united  should  be  clean,  dry,  and  true; 
they  should  be  brought  together  as  tightly  as  possible,  so  that  the 
superfluous  glue  is  squeezed  out.  The  cohesion  of  a  piece  of  solid 
glue,  or  the  force  required  to  separate  one  square  inch,  is  four 
thousand  pounds.  The  strength  of  common  glue  for  coarse  work 
is  increased  by  the  addition  of  a  little  powdered  chalk.  The  hot- 
ter the  glue  the  greater  its  cohesion  ;  therefore  in  all  large  and 
long  joints  the  glue  should  be  applied  immediately  after  boiling. 
Glue  loses  much  of  its  strength  by  frequent  re-melting ;  that  glue, 
therefore,  which  is  newly  made,  is  much  preferable  to  that  which 
has  been  re-boiled. 

Glue  Pot. — A  glue  pot  recently  perfected  consists  of  a  cir- 
cular kerosene  lamp,  made  of  tin,  resting  upon  a  tin  bottom  8j4 
inches  in  diameter.  The  lamp  is  fitted  with  a  tin  chimney  in  place 
of  glass,  and  fitted  with  a  small  aperture,  covered  with  mica,  so  as 
to  see  how  to  regulate  the  flame.  The  glue  pot  is  made  of  cop- 
per, tinned  on  the  inside  and  supported  upon  a  rim  setting  up 
about  six  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  lamp,  the  rim  supported  I)y 
three  legs,  soldered  and  riveted  to  the  rim  and  bottom  of  lamp  rest. 


lOO  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

The  pot  in  which  the  bottom  is  phiced  has  a  portion  of  the  bot- 
tom arched,  to  give  more  heating  surface,  and  connecting  with  the 
chamber  under  the  pot  is  a  flue,  passing  out  and  up  alongside  of 
the  pot,  which  carries  off  any  smoke  from  the  lamp,  and  also  acts 
as  a  draft  to  tiie  flame.  This  pot  is  five  inches  in  diameter,  and 
about  six  inches  high.  The  pot  for  the  reception  of  the  glue  is 
set  in  the  same  as  an  ordinary  glue  |)0t.  and  will  hokl  about  a 
quart  of  glue.  The  whole  can  be  carrcd  to  an\-  place  where  you 
wish  to  use  it,  and  still  have  the  heat  kept  up.  The  cost  of  oil  is 
but  a  few  cents  a  week. 

Another  improvemeiU  is  in  the  pot  being  of  copper,  tinned.  It 
will  not  corrode  and  spoil  the  glue,  as  is  the  case  with  iron. 

French  cabinet-makers  use  a  glue  pot  with  an  inside  pan  made 
of  glazed  earthenware  and  divided  radially  into  three  divisions,  in 
one  of  which  is  kc])t  strong  glue,  in  another  weaker,  and  in  the 
third  water  only,  with  a  brush  or  piece  of  sponge  for  cleaning  off 
superfluous  glue  fiom  the  work. 

A  lew  holes  bored  near  the  top  of  the  inner  vessel  of  a  glue  i)ot 
by  admitting  steam  from  the  outer  vessel  will  prevent  the  glue 
from  solidifying  on  the  side.  They  need  not  be  bored  round  the 
whole  circumference  of  the  i)Ot,  to  allow  of  pouring  out  the  glue  if 
necessary. 

To  Prevent  Glue  Cracking.— Glue  frequently  cracks 
because  of  the  dryness  of  the  air  in  rooms  warmed  by  stoves. 
The  addition  of  chloride  of  calcium  to  glue  will  prevent  this  disa- 
greeable property  of  cracking.  Chloride  of  calcium  is  such  a  deli- 
quescent salt  that  it  attracts  enough  moisture  to  prevent  the  glue 
from  cracking.  Glue  thus  prepared  will  adhere  to  glass,  metal,  etc., 
and  can  be  used  for  putting  on  labels  without  danger  of  their  drop- 
ping off. 

Strong    Glue  to  Resist    Moisture.— Dissolve   gum- 

sandarac  and  mastic,  of  each  a  (|uarter  of  an  ounce,  in  a  quarter 
of  a  i)int  of  sjiirits  of  wine,  to  which  add  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
clear  turpentine;  now  take  strong  glue,  or  that  in  which  isinglass 
has  been  dissolved;  then,  jtulting  the  gums  into  a  double  glue-pot, 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  lOI 

add  by  degrees  the  glue,  constantly  stirring  it  over  the  fire  till  the 
whole  is  well  incor[)orated;  strain  it  through  a  cloth,  and  it  is 
ready  for  use.  You  maj'  now  return  it  to  the  glue  pot,  and  add 
half  an  ounce  of  very  finely-[)owciered  glass ;  use  it  quite  hot.  If 
you  join  two  pieces  of  wood  together  with  it,  you  may,  when  per- 
fectly hard  and  dry,  immerse  it  in  water,  and  the  joint  will  not 
se[)arate. 

Glue  to  Resist  Moisture. — To  two  quarts  of  skimmed 
niilk  add  half  a  pound  of  the  best  glue  ;  melt  them  together,  taking 
care  they  do  not  boil  over,  and  you  will  have  a  very  strong  glue, 
which  will  resist  damp  or  moisture. 

Portable  Glue. — Boil  one  pound  of  the  best  glue,  strain  it 
very  clear ;  boil  also  four  ounces  of  isinglass ;  put  it  into  a  double 
glue-pot,  with  half  a  pound  of  fine  brown  sugar,  and  boil  it  pretty 
thick ;  then  pour  it  into  plates  or  moulds.  When  cold  you  may 
cut  and  dry  them  for  the  pocket. 

This  glue  is  very  useful  to  draughtsmen,  architects,  etc.,  as  it 
immediately  dilutes  in  warm  water,  and  fastens  the  paper  without 
the  process  of  dampening;  or,  it  may  be  used  by  softening  it  in 
the  mouth,  and  applying  it  to  the  paper. 


MISCELLANEOUS   RECEIPTS. 

To  Raise  Old  Veneers. — First,  wash  the  surface  with 
boiling  water,  and,  with  a  coarse  cloth,  remove  dirt  or  grease; 
then  place  it  before  the  fire,  or  heat  it  with  a  caul ;  oil  its  surface 
with  common  linseed-oil,  place  it  again  to  the  tire,  and  the  heat  will 
make  the  oil  penetrate  quite  through  the  veneer,  and  soften  the 
glue  underneath;  then,  while  hot,  raise  the  edge  gently  with  a 
chisel,  and  it  will  separate  completely  from  the  ground;  be  careful 
not  to  use  too  great  force,  or  the  work  will  be  spoiled.  Again,  if  it 
should  get  cold  during  the  operation,  apply  more  oil,  and  heat  it 
again.  Repeat  this  process  till  the  veneer  is  entirely  separated, 
then  wash  off  the  old  glue  and  proceed  to  lay  it  again  as  a  new- 
veneer. 


102  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINK  l-MAKERS, 

To  Take  Out  Bruises  in  Furniture.— Wet  the  part 

with  warm  water  ;  double  a  piece  of  brown  paper  five  or  six  times, 
soak  it,  and  lay  it  on  the  place ;  apply  on  that  a  hot  flat-iron  till 
the  moisture  is  evaporated.  If  the  bruise  be  not  gone,  repeat  the 
process.  After  two  or  three  applications,  the  dent  or  bruise  will  be 
raised  level  with  the  surface.  If  the  bruise  be  small,  merely  soak 
it  with  warm  water,  and  apply  a  red-hot  poker  very  near  the  sur- 
face;  keep  it  continually  wet,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  bruise  will 
disappear. 

To  Make  Paste  for  Laying  Cloth  or  Leather.— 

To  a  i)int  of  the  best  wheaten  flour  add  resin,  very  finely  pow- 
dered, about  two  large  spoonfuls ;  of  alum,  one  S[)Oonful,  in  powder  ; 
mix  them  all  well  together,  put  them  into  a  pan,  and  add  by  de- 
grees soft  or  rain  water,  carefully  stirring  it  till  it  is  of  the  con- 
sistence of  thinnish  cream ;  put  it  into  a  saucepan  over  a  clear 
fire,  keeping  it  constantly  stirred,  that  it  may  not  get  lumjjy. 
When  it  is  of  a  stiff"  consistence,  so  that  the  spoon  will  stand  up- 
right in  it,  it  is  done  enough.  Be  careful  to  stir  it  well  from  the 
bottom,  for  it  will  burn  if  not  well  attended  to.  Empty  it  out  into 
a  pan  and  cover  it  over  till  cold,  to  [jrevent  a  skin  forming  on  the 
top,  which  would   make  it  lumj^y. 

This  paste  is  very  superior  for  the  [lurpose.  and  adhesive.  To 
use  it  for  cloth  or  baize,  spread  the  paste  evenly  and  smoothly  on 
the  top  of  the  table,  and  lay  the  cloth  on  it,  pressing  and  smooth- 
ing it  with  a  flat  jjiece  of  wood;  let  it  remain  till  dry;  then  trim 
the  edges  close  to  the  cross-banding.  If  you  cut  it  close  at  first, 
it  will,  in  drying,  shrink  and  look  bad  where  it  meets  the  banding 
all  rountl.  If  used  for  leather,  the  leather  must  be  first  previously 
dam|)ed,  and  then  the  paste  spread  over  it;  then  lay  it  on  the 
table,  and  rub  it  smooth  and  level  with  a  linen  cloth,  and  cut  the 
edges  close  to  the  banding  with  a  short  knife.  Some  lay  their 
table  cover  with  glue  instead  of  paste,  and  for  cloth  perhaps  it  is 
the  best  method  ;  but  for  leather  it  is  not  proi)er,  as  glue  is  apt  to 
run  through.  In  using  it  for  cloth,  great  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  glue  be  not  too  thin,  and  that  the  cloth  be  well  rubbed  down 
with  a  thick  piece  of  wood  made  hot  at  the  fire,  for  the  glue  soon 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  103 

chills.     By  this  method,   the  edges  may  be  cut  oti'  close  to  the 
border  at  once. 
Cements  for  Stopping  Flaws  in  Wood.— Put  any 

quantity  of  tine  sawtlust  of  the  same  wood  your  work  is  made  with 
into  an  earthen  pan,  and  pour  boiling  water  on  it,  stir  it  well,  and 
let  it  remain  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  occasionally  stirring  it;  then 
boil  it  for  some  time,  and  it  will  be  of  the  consistence  of  pulp  or 
paste;  put  it  into  a  coarse  cloth,  and  squeeze  all  the  moisture  from 
it.  Keep  for  use,  and,  when  wanted,  mix  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
thin  glue  to  make  it  into  a  paste;  rub  it  well  into  the  cracks,  or  fill 
up  the  holes  in  your  work  with  it.  When  quite  hard  and  dry, 
clean  your  work  off,  and  if  carefully  done,  you  will  scarcely  dis- 
cern the  imperfection. 

Mahogany-Colored   Cement. — Melt    two    ounces   of 

beeswax  and  half  an  ounce  of  Indian  red,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
yellow  ochre,  to  bring  the  cement  to  the  desired  color ;  keep  it  in 
a  pipkin  for  use.  * 

Cement  for  Turners. — Melt  together  beeswax,  one 
ounce;  resin,  half  an  ounce;  and  pitch,  halt  an  ounce;  stir  in  the 
mixture  some  very  fine  brickdust  to  give  it  a  body.  If  too  soft, 
add  more  resin;  if  too  hard,  more  wax.  When  nearly  cold,  make 
it  up  into  cakes  or  rolls,  which  keep  for  use. 

I'his  will  be  found  very  useful  for  fastening  any  piece  of  wood 
on  the  chuck,  which  is  done  by  applying  the  roller  of  cement  to 
the  chuck  and  it  will  adhere  with  sufficient  force. 

Tracing  Paper. — A  good  firm  tissue  jjaper  washed  with  a 
mixture  of  six  parts  spirits  of  wine^  one  of  resin,  one  of  nut  oil. 
Apply  with  a  sponge. 

Another. — Canada  balsam  and  turpentine,  equal  parts,  will  make 
a  varnish  which,  if  applied  to  one  side  of  a  good  thin  paper,  will 
answer  well.  If  it  is  meant  to  take  watercolor,  a  coat  of  ox  gall 
must  be  laid  on. 

Another. — Dissolve  a  piece  of  white  beeswax,  about  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  in  half  a  pint  of  spirits  of  turpentine;  then,  having  pro- 
cured some  very  fine  white,  woven   tissue-paper,  lay  it  on  a  clean 


i04  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

board,  and,  with  a  soft  brusli  dipped  in  this  hjuid,  go  over  one 
side,  and  then  turn  it  over,  and  apply  it  to  the  otlier;  hang  it  up 
in  a  place  free  from  dust,  to  dry.  It  will  be  ready  for  use  m  a  few 
days.  Some  add  a  small  quantity  of  resin,  or  use  resin  instead  of 
wax. 

Mounted  Tracings.— Tightly  strain  across  an  old  drawing- 
board,  by  means  of  tacks  slightly  driven,  a  piece  of  cotton  of  toler- 
ably good  quality,  but  do  not  damp  it,  except  with  paste,  as  here- 
after mentioned.  Work  the  last  in  well  with  a  painter's  brush  that 
has  not  been  used  for  any  other  purpose.  It  is  advisable  to  soak 
the  brush,  before  using,  for  a  few  hours  in  cold  water,  so  as,  by  ex- 
pansion of  the  handle  and  constriction  of  the  cordage,  to  tighten 
the  hairs,  and  prevent  them  coming  out  with  the  paste.  Paste  also 
the  back  of  the  tracing,  and,  obtaining  the  assistance  of  another 
person,  hold  it  by  the  corners  over  the  strained  fabric,  allowing  it 
to  sag  well,  and  lower  it  gently  until  the  middle  of  the  tracing  first 
come  into  contact  with  the  celico,  after  which  gently  and  simulta- 
neously lay  down  each  corner.  The  tracing  may  now  be  gently 
dabbed  with  a  clean  cloth,  commencing  at  the  middle,  and  work- 
ing out  the  blisters  to  the  edge.  A  needle  may  sometimes  be 
used  with  advantage  to  puncture  small  holes  and  set  free  the  air  in 
some  of  the  obstinate  blisters ;  but  do  not  trouble  to  remove  them 
all,  as  the  smaller  ones  will  quite  disappear  in  drying.  Do  not  rub 
the  tracing  whilst  wet  without  the  intervention  of  a  sheet  of  large 
thin  lining  paper,  such  as  is  used  for  lining  walls.  Allow  the  trac- 
ing to  dry  gradually  on  the  board  without  fire  heat,  and  do  not 
remove  it  until  thoroughly  dry.  Draw  on  the  scale  before  mount- 
ing, so  that  it  may,  by  contracting  and  expanding  with  the  draw- 
ing, be  always  true.  The  tracing,  when  mounted,  presents  a  better 
surface  for  coloring  than  before.  The  board  should  be  cleaned 
before  using. 

Cracks  in  Drawing  Boards.— The  material  generally 
used  in  stopping  the  above  is  a  cornjjosition  made  of  glue  and 
chalk,  worked  up  to  the  consistency  of  putty,  and  applied  to  the 
board  in  a  soft  state,  allowed  to  dry,  and  smoothed  off  with  sand- 
paper. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FUKNl'lURE    MEN.  105 

To  Temper  Tools. — The  quality  of  the  steel  should  be 
uniform  throughout;  uideed,  it  is  always  better  to  have  them  tem- 
pered rather  too  hard  than  soft,  for  use  will  reduce  the  temper.  If 
at  any  time  it  is  necessrry  to  perform  the  operation  yourself,  the 
best  method  is  to  melt  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lead  to  immerse  the 
cutting  part  of  the  tool  in.  Having  previously  brightened  its  sur- 
face, plunge  it  into  the  melted  lead  for  a  few  minutes,  till  it  gets 
sufficiently  hot  to  melt  a  candle,  with  which  rub  its  surface ;  then 
plunge  it  in  again,  and  keep  it  there  till  the  steel  assumes  a  straw 
color;  but  be  careful  not  to  let  it  turn  blue.  When  that  is  the 
case,  take  it  out,  rub  it  again  with  the  tallow,  and  let  it  cool.  If 
it  should  be  too  soft,  wipe  the  grease  off,  repeat  the  process  with- 
out the  tallow ;  and,  when  it  is  sufficiently  hot,  plunge  it  into  cold 
spring-water,  or  water  and  vinegar  mixed.  By  a  proper  attention 
to  these  directions,  and  a  little  practice,  every  workman  will  have 
it  in  his  power  to  give  a  proper  temper  to  the  tools  he  may  use. 
If  a  saw  is  too  hard,  it  may  be  tempered  by  the  same  means ;  but 
as  it  would  be  not  only  expensive,  but  in  many  cases  impossible  to 
do  it  at  home,  a  plumber's  shop  is  mostly  at  hand,  where  the  pro- 
cess may  be  repeated  when  they  are  melting  a  pot  of  lead.  But 
here  observe  that  the  temper  necessary  is  different  to  other  cutting 
tools ;  you  must  wait  till  the  steel  just  begins  to  turn  blue,  which  is 
a  temper  that  will  give  it  more  elasticity,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
sufficient  hardness. 

Hardening  Tools. — A  communication  to  the  English  Me- 
chanic says  :  "  Mercury  is  the  best  liquid  for  hardening  steel 
cutting  tools.  The  best  steel,  when  forged  into  shape  and  hard- 
ened in  mercury,  will  cut  almost  anything.  I  have  seen  articles 
made  from  ordinary  steel  which  have  been  hardened  and  tempered 
to  a  deep  straw  color,  turned  with  comparative  ease  with  cutting 
tools  from  good  tool  steel,  hardened  in  mercury." 

To  Cut  Good  Steel  Scrapers.— Part  of  the  blade  of  a 

broken  saw  makes  the  best  scrapers ;  but,  as  it  is  hard,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  cut  it  into  tlie  required  form.  The  best  nnd  most  ex- 
peditious way  is  to  mark  it  out  to  the  size  wanted,  and  then  to 
place  the  blade  or  steel  plate  in  a  vise  whose  chaps  shut  very  close, 


lo6  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINK  I-.MAKERS, 

placing  tlie  mark  even  with  the  face  of  the  vise,  and  the  part  to  be 
cut  to  waste  above  the  vise,  'i'hen  with  a  cohl-chisel,  or  a  com- 
mon steel-firmer  that  lias  its  basil  broken  off,  holding  it  close  to  the 
vise  and  rather  inclined  upwards,  begin  at  one  end  of  the  steel 
plate,  and  w  ith  a  sharp  blow  of  the  hammer  it  will  cut  it.  Keep 
going  on  by  degrees,  and  you  will  with  ease  cut  it  to  the  shape  re- 
quired ;  then  grind  the  edges  of  your  scraper  level,  and  tinish  by 
rubbing  it  on  your  Turkey-stone. 

To    Remedy    Splits    in    Circular    Saws.— Three 

methotls : 

Drill  a  small  hole  in  the  saw  at  the  bottom  of  the  split. 

Drill  six  holes  about  ^  inch  in  diameter,  along  the  line  of  the 
crack,  taking  care  that  one  of  them  falls  just  inside  it;  countersink 
the  five  outer  holes  on  both  sides,  and  rivet  nicely  up  with  hot 
rivets  shghtly  less  in  diameter  than  the  holes. 

Cut  a  series  of  dovetails  across  the  split,  and  insert  therein  cop- 
per dove-tails,  which  must  be  riveted  tight  by  hammering  on  each 
side.  The  edges  of  the  holes  must  be  filed  to  an  acute  angle 
from  each  side  of  the  saw,  half  the  thickness  of  it,  and  the  copper 
dove-tail  pieces  must  not  be  (juite  long  enough  to  fill  the  hole,  but 
must  fit  in  width  exactly,  and  of  course  must  be  well  annealed, 
and  considerably  thicker  than  the  saw.  When  riveletl,  file  oft' level 
with  saw. 

Brazing  Band-Saws.— Good  brass,  rich  in  copper,  is 
generally  used.  Bring  the  two  ends  of  the  saw  close  together  and 
fasten,  then  take  a  small  pan  of  charcoal,  and  place  it  under  the 
ends,  and  direct  the  flame  of  a  blowpipe  on  it.  As  the  ends  will 
soon  become  red  hot,  sprinkle  some  powderetl  borax  upon  them, 
and  add  the  solder  with  a  piece  of  iron.  The  way  to  make  the 
solder  melt :  cast  in  ingot  and  file  away ;  collect  the  filings,  and 
put  into  solution  ot  sal  ammoniac  in  water,  and  so  keep  until 
wanted. 

Saw  Sharpening. —  I'o  sharpen  the  saw,  take  a  triangular 
file,  three-square  file  it  is  called,  the  handle  in  the  right  hand,  the 
point  of  the  file  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand, 


UPHOI.SIEREKS    AND    KURNllUKK    MKN.  107 

apply  it  te)  llic  front  of  the  tiist  tooth  that  leans  away  from  the 
operator.  Let  the  point  of  the  file  incline  towards  the  point  of 
the  saw,  give  three  or  four  or  more  rubs  of  the  file,  and  the  point 
of  the  tooth  will  be  sharpened,  and  the  front  brought  to  a  sharp 
edge,  and  as  the  file  will  have  passed  over  the  tO[)  of  the  next 
tooth  it  also  will  be  filed  down,  and  the  point  partly  sharpened. 

Now  apply  the  file  to  the  front  of  this  tooth ;  it  leans  to- 
wards the  operator,  so  tlie  point  of  the  file  must  incline  towards 
the  handle  of  the  saw.  Give,  as  before,  three  or  four  rubs,  accord- 
ing to  the  state  of  the  saw,  and  the  point  of  this  tooth  will  also  be 
sharpened,  and  its  front  brought  to  a  sharp  cutting  edge.  Go  on 
in  this  way  alternately,  always  remembering  that  when  the  tooth 
leans  away  from  the  operator  the  point  of  the  file  must  incline  to 
the  point  of  the  saw,  and  when  the  tooth  leans  towards  the  opera- 
tor, then  it  must  incline  towards  the  handle  of  the  saw. 

If  the  saw  has  been  sharpened  before,  it  will  be  advisable  to  first 
run  the  file  along  the  top  of  the  teeth,  to  bring  them  all  to  a  level. 

Oiling  Tools. — An  English  authority  says:  When  a  set  of 
bench-plane.s  is  French-i)olished,  they  certainly  look  very  well  on 
the  bench  for  a  short  time,  but  the  French-polish  does  not  add  to 
their  durability  or  usefulness,  and,  I  think,  gives  them  anything 
but  a  workmanlike  appearance.  My  plan  is  to  knock  the  irons 
out,  weigh  them,  and  then  drop  them  into  the  linseed-oil  barrel, 
and  let  them  stay  there  a  week;  I  then  take  and  weigh  them 
again  to  ascertain  how  mucli  oil  they  have  absorbed.  The  oil 
goes  right  to  the  heart  of  the  jjlanes,  and  as  it  sets  it  makes  them 
hard,  and  they  may  be  dej^ended  upon  for  kee[)ing  their  shape. 
Rubbing  them  over  every  dinner  hour  for  a  week  or  two  will  give 
them  a  beautiful  surface,  and  they  will  not  show  scratches  or  dents 
as  they  would  if  they  were  French-polished. 

To  Mark  Tools. — Coat  over  the  tools  with  a  thin  layer  ot 
wax  or  hard  tallow,  by  first  warming  the  steel  and  rubbing  on  the 
wax;  warm  until  it  flows  and  let  it  cool.  When  hard,  mark  the 
name  through  the  wax  with  a  graver  and  apply  some  aquafortis 
(nitric   acid);  after  a  few   moments    wash   oft"  the  acid  thoroughly 


Io8  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

witli  water,  warm  ilie  metal  enough  to  melt  the  wax,  and  wii)e  it 
off  with  a  soft  rag.     The  letters  will  he  found  etched  into  the  steel. 

Varnish  for  Tools. —  Take  2  oz.  tallow,  i  oz.  resin  ;  melt 
together  and  strain,  w  hile  hot,  to  remove  the  specks  which  are  in 
the  resin.  Apply  a  slight  coat  on  the  tools  with  a  brush,  and  it 
will  keep  off  the  rust  for  an\-  length  of  time. 

Boiler  Incrustation.  -The  following  remedies  have  been 
used,  with  varying  success,  to  prevent  the  incrustation  of  boilers. 

1.  Potatoes,  in  weight  one-fiftieth  part  that  of  the  water,  pre- 
vents the  adherenc'.;  of  scale. 

2.  12  parts  of  salt,  zy^  parts  of  caustic  soda,  y%  part  of  extract 
of  bark,  i^  part  of  potash. 

3.  Pieces  of  oak-wood  suspended  in  the  boiler  and  renewed 
'monthly. 

4.  2  ounces  of  muriate  of  ammonia  in  the  boiler  twice  a  week. 

5.  A  coating,  consisting  of  3  parts  of  black-lead  and  18  parts  of 
tallow,  applied  hot  to  the  inside  of  the  bo'ler  every  few  weeks. 

6.  12^  lbs.  of  molasses,  fed  into  an  8-horse  boiler  at  intervals, 
prevented  incrustation  for  six  months. 

7.  Mahogany  or  oak  saw-dust  in  small  quantities.  Use  this 
with  caution,  as  the  tannic  acid  attracts  iron. 

8.  Carbonate  of  soda. 

Non-Conducting  Covering  for  Steam  Pipes.— 

Sawdust  mixed  with  flour  and  water  into  a  thick  paste  is  a  non- 
conducting covering  for  steam  pipes,  cylinders,  etc.  The  flour 
should  be  made  into  a  very  thin  ])aste,  and  then  the  sawdust  is 
stirred  in.  The  adhesion  of  this  composition  is  very  great  when 
applied  on  clean  surfaces  of  wrought  or  cast  iron  ;  but  on  copper 
pipes  it  is  necessary  to  wash  them  first  with  a  clay-wash,  made 
with  |)otter's  clay,  until  it  forms  a  thin  coating,  after  which  the 
sawdust  and  paste  will  adhere  firmly.  It  is  very  simple  to  api)ly ; 
a  small  trowel  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Lay  on  five  successive 
coats  one-fifth  of  an  inch  thick.  Let  the  pipes  or  other  objects  to 
be  covered  be  kept  warm  by  the  aid  of  a  little  steam,  and  let  one 
coat  be  perfectly  dry  before  applying  a  second.     Should   the  pipes 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FUKNlTUKIi    MEN.  IO9 

be  outside,  exposed  to  tlie  open  air,  give  them  tliree  or  four  coats 
of  coal  tar  to  make  tliem  waterproof,  but  if  inside  a  building  it  is 
not  necessary.  It  is  well  to  pass  the  sawdust  through  a  riddle  to 
cleanse  it  from  the  coarse  fragments  of  wood  which  are  always  to 
be  found  amongst  sawdust.  Steam  pipes  so  covered  lose  less  heat 
than  when  covered  by  any  other  known  or  patented  process  sold 
for  that  purpose.  It  is  much  less  expensive  and  much  more 
efficient. 

To  Harden  Wood  Pulleys. — Soft  maple  is  often  used 

in  the  construction  of  friction  pulleys.  If  it  is  boiled  in  olive-oil  it 
will  prove  beneficial  in  a  number  of  ways.  It  will  harden  the 
timber  and  render  it  less  liable  to  split,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
gear  will  slip  more  after  such  treatment. 

To  Prevent  Belts  Slipping.— A  piece  of  rubber  belting 
fastened  around  the  belt  pulley  of  an  engine  will  keep  the  belt 
from  slipping. 

Hasps. — A  farrier's  rasp  is  an  excellent  tool  for  preparing  a 
rough  piece  of  wood  or  ivory  for  the  lathe.  Where  only  a  small 
quantity  of  the  material  is  required  to  be  removed  it  will  be  found 
to  be  more  convenient  than  the  axe  or  paring-knife.  There  is  also 
a  somewhat  similar  tool  used  by  shoemakers  which,  for  smaller 
jobs,  will  be  found  equally  efficient. 

Soft  Piles. — Small  single-cut  files  or  "floats"  of  various 
shapes  not  hardened,  may  be  met  with  at  some  of  the  dealers  in 
watchmaker's  tools,  which  are  useful  in  finishing  small  articles  in 
hard  wood,  ivory,  and  also  gold  and  silver ;  they  are  used  some- 
times by  jewellers  for  finishing,  on  account  of  their  leaving  a 
smooth  surface  behind  them  instead  of  a  rough  one,  as  a  cross-cut 
file  does. 

Amalgam  Varnish. — Melt  together  equal  parts  of  bis- 
muth, tin  and  quicksilver;  when  melted  and  cooled  make  it  into  a 
varnish  with  white  of  egg.  It  is  used  for  the  varnishing  of  plaster- 
of- Paris  figures  and  others  of  the  like  kind.     Some  people  recom- 


no  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

mend  lead,  but  lead  soon  becomes  tarnished,  but  tin  and  bismuth 
will  keep  bright. 

Painting  and  Preserving  Ironwork.— A  good  black 

paint  for  coarse  ironwork  may  be  made  by  mixing  plumbago  with 
hot  coal-tar.  Equal  parts  of  asphaltum  and  resin  dissolved  in  com- 
mon turpentine  make  also  a  good,  cheap  covering  for  heavy  iron- 
work. For  machinery,  dissolve  2  lbs.  india-rubber,  4  lbs.  resin, 
and  2  lbs.  shell-lac,  in  5  gallons  of  benzine.  This  may  be  used 
with  any  other  paint  as  a  vehicle.  Wrought-iron  bridges  are 
painted  with  white-lead  as  follows :  The  ironwork  is  first  made 
clean  by  scrubbing  and  brushing  it  with  wire  brushes ;  this  done, 
all  the  cavities  and  fissures  are  filled  up  with  a  putty  of  litharge, 
linseed-oil,  varnish,  and  white-lead  ;  this  tilling  being  dry,  brushing 
is  repeated.  Afterwards  a  paint  is  applied,  consisting  of  300  lbs. 
of  white-lead,  10  gallons  of  crude  linseed  oil,  i  or  2  gallons  of 
boiled  linseed-oil,  and  i  J^  gallons  turpentine.  This  paint  is  re- 
peated when  sufficient!)'  dry,  and  finally  evenly  overspread  with 
wl'.ite  sand.  Galvanizing  is  employed  also  to  prevent  rusting.  A 
galvanizing  paint  consists  chiefly  of  zinc  powder  and  oil  var- 
nish Rusting  is  further  prevented  by  rubbing  the  red-hot  iron  with 
wax,  tallow,  pitch,  or  coal-tar.  Rubbing  with  heavy  petroleum  is 
also  well  adapted  for  keeping  ironwork  clean. 

Preparing  Soft  Solder. —  riie   following  directions  for 

soldering  without  fire  or  lamp  may  prove  useful :  Bismuth, 
i^  oz.;  quicksilver,  j{  oz.;  block  tin  filing,  i  oz.;  spirits  of  salts, 
I  oz.  Mix  the  whole  together.  Another  soft  solder  for  tin,  etc.: 
Take  lead,  1  part;  tin,  i  part;  bismuth,  2  parts;  this  melts  in 
boiling  water. 

To  Clean  Silver  Filigree. — Make  a  thin  paste  with  cold 

water  and  cream  of  tartar,  spread  over  ornaments  thickly,  fold  in 
flannel,  leave  a  week,  then  wash  off  with  water,  and  they  will  be 
as  good  as  new. 

Bronzing  on  Metal. —  The  article  must  be  chemically 
cleaned  up,  brushing  with  a  mixture  of  fine  pumice  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  rinsed  in  pure  water   and   dried.     The  bronze   liquor 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  HI 

must  be  applied  quickly  and  evenly  with  a  camel's-hair  brush,  hav- 
ing first  heated  the  article,  just  so  as  it  can  be  held  without  burning 
the  fingers. 

Polishing  Metals. — A  useful  compound  for  polishing  and 
cleaning  metals  is  composed  of  i  oz.  carbonate  of  ammonia  dis- 
solved in  4  oz.  water;  with  this  is  mixed  i6  oz.  Paris  white.  A 
moistened  sponge  is  dipped  in  the  powder,  and  rubbed  lightly  over 
the  surface  of  the  metal,  after  which  the  powder  is  dusted  off,  leav- 
ing a  fine  brilliant  lustre. 

Imitation  Marble. — Mix  i  lb.  finely-powdered  lime  into  a 
thick  paste  with  water,  and  add  3^  lb.  of  colophony,  or,  what  is 
better,  Venice  turpentine.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  for  some 
time,  and  then  work  up  w-ith  it  suitable  cjuantities  of  fine  white 
chalk  and  various  colored  earths,  adding  a  few  drops  of  olive  oil 
if  necessary.  A  soft  mass  is  thus  obtained,  which  can  be  moulded, 
like  plaster-of-Paris,  to  any  desired  form,  or  it  can  be  rolled  out 
on  a  warm  metal  plate,  or  passed  under  wooden  rollers,  into 
thin  sheets,  which  can  be  glued  to  the  surface  to  be  decorated, 
like  ordinary  veneers,  and  left  to  harden.  It  hardens  and  takes  a 
good  surface.  Any  cavities  that  appear  must  be  filled  up  with 
some  of  the  composition  mixed  with  oil  of  turpentine.  The  com- 
position will  keep  fit  for  use  for  some  time,  if  covered  with  a  damp 
cloth  while  moist. 

To  Polish  Marble. — It  sometimes  happens  that  the  cab- 
inet-maker has  a  table  top  of  marble  to  remount,  which  is  scratched, 
and  requires  re-polishing.  The  following  is  the  j^rocess  used  by  the 
mason,  and  willj  therefore,  be  acceptable  in  a  work  like  the  present. 
With  a  piece  of  sandstone  with  a  very  fine  grit,  rub  the  slab  back- 
ward and  forward,  using  very  fine  sand  and  water,  till  the  marble 
appears  equally  rough,  and  not  in  scratches;  next  use  a  finer  stone 
and  finer  sand,  till  its  surface  appears  equally  gone  over;  then, 
with  fine  emery-powder  and  a  piece  of  felt  or  old  hat  wrapped 
round  a  weight,  rub  till  all  the  marks  left  by  the  former  process  are 
worked  out,  and  it  appears  with  a  comparative  gloss  on  its  surface. 
Afterward  finish  the  polish  with  putty-powder  and  fine,  clean  rags. 


112  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

As  soon  as  the  face  appears  of  a  good  gloss,  do  not  put  any  more 
powder  on  the  rags,  but  rub  it  well,  and  in  a  short  time  it  will  ap- 
pear as  if  fresh  from  the  mason's  hands. 

Another. — Make  a  thick  i)aste  with  rotten-stone  and  olive  oil, 
and  vigorously  rub  the  marble  with  it  on  a  cloth. 

To  Polish  Black  Marble. — Wash  it  with  warm  soap 
and  water,  and  when  dry  rub  it  well  with  furniture  paste  or  French 
polish,  and  then  rub  it  with  an  old  silk  handkerchief.     After  one  or 

two  trials  it  will  become  quite  bright. 

To  Clean  Marble. — Mix  the  strongest  soap-lees  with 
quicklime  to  the  consistency  of  milk;  let  it  lie  on  the  stone,  etc., 
for  twenty-four  hours ;  then  clean  it  off,  and  wash  w-ith  soap  and 
water,  and  it  will  appear  as  new.  The  polish  will  require  to  be 
renewed  by  the  process  given  above. 

Another. — Mix  with  y^  pint  of  soapdees,  ^  a  gill  of  turpentine, 
sufficient  pipe  clay  and  bullock's  gall  to  make  the  whole  into  a 
rather  thick  paste.  Apply  it  to  the  marble  with  a  soft  brush,  and 
after  a  day  or  two,  when  quite  dry,  rub  it  off  with  a  soft  rag. 
Apply  this  a  second  or  third  time  till  the  marble  is  quite  clean. 

To  Remove  Stains  on  Marble.— Apply  spirits  of  salt 

and  carefully  wash  off. 

To  Clean  Pictures. — Wash  with  a  sponge  or  a  soft  leather 
and  water,  and  dry  by  rubbing  with  a  silk  handkerchief.  When 
the  picture  is  very  dirty,  take  it  out  of  its  frame,  procure  a  clean 
towel,  and  making  it  quite  wet,  lay  it  on  the  face  of  the  picture, 
sprinkling  it  from  time  to  time  with  clear  soft  water;  let  it  remain 
wet  for  two  or  three  days ;  take  the  cloth  off  and  renew  it  with  a 
fresh  one ;  after  wiping  the  picture  with  a  clean  wet  sponge,  repeat 
the  process  till  all  the  dirt  is  soaked  out;  then  wash  it  well  with  a 
soft  sjjonge,  and  let  it  get  dry  ;  rub  it  with  some  clear  nut  or 
linseed-oil.  Spirits  of  wine  and  turpentine  may  be  used  to  dissolve 
the  hard  old  varnish,  but  they  will  attack  the  paint  as  well  as  the 
varnish  if  the  further  action  of  the  spirits  is  not  stopped  at  the 
proper  time  by  using  water  freely. 


UPHOLSTEPERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  I  I3 

Cleaning  Varnished  Pictures — There  are  conditions 

where  the  above  simple  process  will  not  accomplish  what  is  re- 
quired ;  where  a  thick  coating  of  varnish  has  been  applied  to  the 
picture,  and  it  has  been  hung  in  a  smoky  room,  and  dust  and  dir^: 
has  been  allowed  to  gather  and  remain;  then  it  is  that  no  high 
lights  will  be  visible,  the  sky  will  be  dirty,  no  distance  visible,  and 
perhaps  the  figures  in  the  foreground  very  indistinct.  Under  these 
conditions  the  varnish  must  be  either  removed  or  the  smoke  and 
dirt  must  be  brought  out  of  the  varnish.  If  it  is  thought  desirable 
to  try  the  latter,  the  following  receipt  will  be  found  valuable  for  the 
purpose  :  2  oz.  wood  naptha,  i  oz.  spirits  of  salts,  y^  pint  of  lin- 
seed-oil. 

Mix  the  above  well  together,  and  before  using  shake  the  bottle. 
It  can  be  used  as  follows :  Get  some  soft  linen  rag,  and  make  up 
a  soft  pad,  which  place  on  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  and  shake  up 
some  of  the  mixture  into  the  pad,  when  commence  rubbing  the 
picture  with  a  circular  motion,  and  when  nearly  dry  again  give  the 
pad  another  dressing  of  mixture,  and  continue  this  mode  of  pro- 
cedure for  some  time,  when  the  picture  will  gradually  come  out  in 
all  its  detail. 

Cleaning  Engravings. — Put  the  engraving  on  a  smooth 
board,  cover  it  thinly  with  common  salt  finely  powdered.  Squeeze 
lemon  juice  upon  the  salt  so  as  to  dissolve  a  considerable  portion 
of  it;  elevate  one  end  of  the  board  so  that  it  may  form  an  angle  of 
about  45  or  50  degrees.  Pour  on  the  engraving  boiling  water  from 
a  tea  kettle  until  the  salt  and  lemon  juice  be  all  washed  off  The 
engraving  then  will  be  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  stains.  It 
must  be  dried  on  the  board  or  some  smooth  surface  gradually.  If 
dried  by  the  fire  or  the  sun  it  will  be  tinged  with  a  yellow  color. 

Cleaning  Engravings. — Presuming  these  to  be  mounted, 
proceed  in  the  following  manner:  Cut  a  stale  loaf  in  half,  with  a 
perfectly  clean  knife  ;  pare  the  crust  away  from  the  edges.  Now 
place  the  engravings  on  a  perfectly  flat  table,  and  rubbing  the  sur- 
face with  the  fresh-cut  bread,  in  circular  sweeps,  lightly  but  firmly 
performed,  will  remove  all  superficial  markings.  Now  soak  the 
prints  for  a  short  time  in  a  dilute  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  say 


114  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

I  part  acid  to  loo  of  water,  and  then  remove  theni  into  a  vessel 
containing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  clear  chloride  lime  water  to  cover 
them.  Leave  them  there  until  bleached  to  the  desired  point. 
Now  remove,  rinse  well  by  allowing  to  stand  an  hour  in  a  pan  in 
which  a  constant  stream  of  water  is  allowed  to  flow,  and  finally  dry 
ofif  by  spreading  on  clean  cloths.  Perhaps  the  sheets  may  require 
ironing  between  two  sheets  of  clean  i)aper. 

To  Smooth  a  Damaged  Picture. — Paintings  some- 
times get  convex  and  concave  patches  on  their  surface,  owing  to 
pressure  on  one  side  or  the  other,  and  these  inequalities  cause  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  to  bring  out.  The  most  successful  way  is  to 
well  wet  both  sides  of  the  picture  on  the  si)Ot,  and  keep  it  under 
pressure  till  dry.  With  small  pictures  the  quickest  way  would  be 
to  take  them  off  the  stretclier  and  lay  them  in  a  press,  with  a  light 
pressure  between  soft  sheets  of  paper. 

Embossed  Gilding  for  Illuminating.— Gilding  of 

figures  and  letters  on  pai)er  and  for  the  enibellislunent  of  inanu- 
scrij^s,  is  performed  with  shell  gold  tempered  with  gum  water;  or 
the  characters  may  be  drawn  with  a  milky  solution  of  gum  amma- 
nacum  made  in  water,  and  gold  leaf  applied  upon  them  when 
almost  drv ;  they  may  again  be  sufficiently  moistened  for  receiving 
the  gold  by  breathing  on  them.  Letters  raised  from  the  surface,  if 
paper  or  i)archment  in  the  manner  of  embossed  work,  such  as  are 
seen  on  ancient  manuscripts,  may  be  formed  either  by  friction  on  a 
proper  body  with  a  solid  piece  of  gold,  or  by  leaf  gold. 

The  former  method  is  practiced  by  tem|)ering  pulverizers'  crystal 
with  strong  gum  water,  and  with  this  paste  forming  the  letters ; 
when  they  are  dry,  they  are  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  solid  gold  as  in 
])olishing,  and  the  letters  will  appear  as  if  gilt  with  burnished  gold. 
The  letters  are  formed  with  an  embossed  figure,  either  of  the  separ- 
ate letters  or  of  whole  words  cut  in  steel,  and  each  letter  of  these 
stamps  when  they  are  used,  is  oiled  evenly  with  a  feather.  Then 
fill  these  concave  letters  with  the  above  ])aste,  and  strike  the  stamps 
in  a  perpendicular  direction  on  the  paper  or  vellum  laid  on  sheets 
of  soft  paper. 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  ^lEN.  I15 

When  the  embossed  letters  are  formed  with  leaf  gold,  the  follow- 
ing or  a  similar  composition  must  be  used.  Thicken  beaten  whites 
of  eggs  with  as  much  vermilion  as  is  necessary  to  give  them  the 
consistence  of  paste ;  use  tlie  stamps  as  before,  and  when  the  letters 
are  dry  moisten  them  by  a  small  pencil  witli  strong  gum  water,  and 
when  this  is  almost  dry  cover  the  letters  with  leaf  gold,  })ressing  it 
close  to  every  part  of  them  with  cotton  wool ;  when  dry,  burnish. 

Gold  for  Illuminating. — Procure  a  book  of  leaf  gold, 
take  out  the  leaves  gently  and  grind  them  in  a  mortar  with  a  piece 
of  honey  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  until  it  is  thoroughly  inter- 
mixed with  the  gold,  then  add  a  little  water  and  re-work  it;  put 
the  whole  into  a  vial  and  shake  it  well.  Let  it  remain  an  hour  or 
two,  and  the  gold  will  deposit  at  the  bottom  of  the  vial. 

Pour  oft"  the  liquor,  and  add  weak  prepared  gum  in  its  stead; 
sufficient  to  make  it  flow  freely  from  the  pen  or  camel's-hair  pencil. 
When  required  for  use,  shake  it  occasionally. 

To  Stain  Horn  in  Imitation  of  Tortoise  Shell.— 

Mix  an  equal  quantity  of  quicklime  and  red  lead  w'ith  strong  soap 
lees,  lay  it  on  the  horn  with  a  small  brush,  in  imitation  of  the 
mottle  of  tortoise-shell ;  when  dry,  repeat  it  two  or  three  times. 

To  Stain  Ivory  or  Bone  Red. — Boil  shavings  of  scarlet 

cloth  in  water,  and  add  by  degrees  jiearlash  till  the  color  is  ex- 
tracted;  a  little  roach  alum,  now  added,  will  clear  the  color;  then 
strain  it  through  a  linen  cloth.  Steep  your  ivory  or  bone  in  aqua- 
fortis (nitrous  acid)  diluted  with  twice  its  quantity  of  water,  then 
take  it  out,  and  put  it  into  your  scarlet  dye  till  the  color  is  to  your 
mind.  Be  careful  not  to  let  your  aquafortis  be  too  strong;  neither 
let  your  ivory  remain  too  long  in  it.  Try  it  first  with  a  slip  of 
ivory,  and  if  you  observe  the  acid  has  just  caused  a  trifling  rough- 
ness on  its  surface,  take  it  out  immediately,  and  put  it  into  the  red 
liquid,  which  must  be  warm,  but  not  too  hot.  A  little  practice, 
v\-ith  these  cautions,  will  enable  you  to  succeed  according  to  your 
wishes;  cover  the  places  you  wish  to  remain  unstained  with  white 
wax,  and  the  stain  will  not  penetrate  in  those  places,  but  leave  the 
ivory  of  its  natural  color. 


Il6  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

To  Stain  Ivory  or  Bone  Black. — Add  to  any  quan- 
tity of  nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic)  three  times  its  bulk  of  water, 
and  steep  your  ivory  or  bone  in  it ;  take  it  out  again  in  about  an 
hour,  and  expose  it  to  the  sunshine  to  dry,,  and  it  will  be  a  perfect 
black. 

To  Stain  Ivory  or  Bone  Green.— Steep  your  work  in 

a  solution  ut  verdigii.-^,  hal-aniniuniac  and  weak  aquafortis,  in  the 
proportion  ot  two  parts  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter,  bemg 
careful  to  use  the  precautions  mentioned  for  staining  red,  as  above. 

To  Stain  Ivory,  etc.,  Blue. — Stain  your  materials  green 
according  to  the  })rcvi()us  process,  and  then  dip  them  in  a  strong 
solution  of  pearlash  and  water. 

To  Stain  Ivory,  etc.,  Yellow.— Put  your  ivory  in  a 

strong  solution  of  alum  in  water,  and  keep  the  whole  some  time 
nearly  boiling;  then  take  them  out  and  mimerse  them  in  a  hot 
mixture  of  turmeric  and  water,  either  with  or  without  the  addition 
of  French  berries;  let  them  simmer  for  about  half  an  hour,  and 
your  ivory  will  be  of  a  beautiful  yellow.  Ivory  or  bone  should  dry 
very  gradually,  or  it  will  split  or  crack. 

To  Soften  Ivory. — Slice  a  quarter  of  a  i)ound  of  mandrake, 

and  put  it  into  lialf  a  ])int  of  the  best  vinegar,  into  which  put  your 
ivory;  let  the  whole  stand  in  a  warm  place  for  forty-eight  hours, 
Avhen  vou  will  be  able  to  bend  the  ivory  to  \our  mind. 

To  Bleach  Ivory. — Take  a  double  handful  of  lime,  and 
slake  it  by  sprinkling  it  with  water;  then  odd  three  pints  of  water, 
and  stir  the  whole  together ;  let  it  settle  ten  minutes,  and  pour 
the  water  into  a  pan.  Take  the  ivory,  and  steep  it  in  the  lime- 
water  for  twenty-four  hours,  after  whi(  h  boil  it  in  a  strong  alum- 
water  one  hour,  and  dry  it  in  the  air. 

Artificial  Ivory.— Two  parts  of  caoutchouc  are  dissolved 
in  36  i)arts  (M"  chlor<jform,  and  the  solution  is  saturated  with  pure 
gaseous  ammonia.  The  chloroform  is  then  distilled  off  at  a  tem- 
perature of  85°  C.  (185°  F.)  The  residue  is  mixed  with  cal- 
cium phosphate  or  zinc  carbonate,  i)ressed  into  moulds  and  dried. 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  II7 

When  calcium  phospliate  is  used,  the  prochict  possesses  to  a  con- 
siderable degree  the  nature  and  composition  of  ivory. 

Cement  for  Joining  Leather. — a  cement  which  has 

been  found  useful  for  this  puipose  may  be  prepared  by  mixing  ten 
parts  of  bisulphate  of  carbon,  one  of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  so  much 
gutta-percha  as  is  necessary  to  [)roduce  a  thick  fluidity.  The 
leather  must  be  first  freed  from  all  grease,  which  can  be  done  by 
simply  laying  it  in  a  cloth  and  pressing  this  with  a  hot  iron.  The 
parts  to  be  joinetl,  after  being  brought  into  contact  with  the  cement, 
require  to  be  kept  pressed  together  until  they  are  quite  dry. 

Cement  for  Leather  and  Wood.— Equal  parts   of 

pitch  and  gutta-percha  melted  together.  This  compound  is  in- 
soluble in  water. 

Cement  for  Joining  China,  etc.— Beat  the  whites  of 

eggs  well  to  a  froth,  let  them  settle,  add  soft  grated  or  sliced  cheese 
and  quicklime ;  beat  them  well  together,  and  apijly  a  little  to  the 
broken  edges.     This  cement  will  endure  both  fire  and  water. 

Cement  for  China,  etc. — Pound  half  an  ounce  of  resin 
and  four  ounces  of  gum-mastic;  put  them  into  a  pipkin  on  the  fire 
to  melt;  stir  them  well.  To  this  add  about  half  an  ounce  of  finely- 
powdered  glass,  and  half  an  ounce  of  quicklime  ;  stir  the  whole 
well  together.  When  nearly  cold,  form  it  into  sticks,  on  a  stone, 
in  the  same  manner  as  sticks  of  sealing-wax  are  formed.  When  it 
is  desired  to  cement  any  article,  heat  the  broken  edges  sufficiently 
to  melt  the  cement,  which  rub  thinly  on  both  edges;  bring  them 
accurately  together;  press  them  close,  and  let  them  cool.  If  this 
be  carefully  done,  the  work  will  sooner  break  in  any  other  part 
than  where  the  cement  has  been  applied. 

Cement  for  Glass.— Steep  one  ounce  of  isinglass  in  half  a 
pint  of  spirits  of  wme  for  twenty-four  hours;  then  let  it  dissolve 
over  a  slow  fire  (always  keeping  it  covered,  or  the  spirit  will  evapor- 
ate) ;  now  well  bruise  six  cloves  of  garlic  in  a  mortar,  put  them  m 
a  linen  cloth,  and  squeeze  the  juice  into  the  isinglass;  mix  all  well 
together,  and  keep  it  for  use.  It  is  excellent  to  jom  glass  orna- 
ments, etc. 


Il8  PkAClICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CAniNFT-MAKERS, 

Cements  for  Aquariums.— Take  i   gill  of  plaster-of- 

Paris,  I  gill  of  litharge,  i  gill  of  fine  white  sand,  ^  gill  of  finely- 
powdered  resin.  Mix  well,  and  bottle  and  cork  it  until  wanted  for 
use,  then  mix  it  with  boiled  oil  and  dryers  until  as  thick  as  putty. 
Mix  the  cement  only  in  small  quantities  as  it  dries  quickly. 

Mix  boiled  linseed  oil,  litharge,  red  and  white  lead  together, 
using  white  lead  in  the  largest  proportion,  spread  on  flannel,  and 
place  on  the  joints. 

A  solution  of  glue,  8  oz.  to  i  oz.  of  Venice  turpentine;  boil  to- 
gether, agitating  all  the  time,  until  the  mixture  becomes  as  com- 
plete as  possible,  the  joints  to  be  cemented  to  be  kept  together  for 
forty-eight  hours  if  required. 

Take  ^  a  gill  of  gold  size,  2  gills  of  reil  lead,  ij/^  gill  of  litharge, 
and  sufficient  silver-sand  to  make  it  into  a  tliick  paste  for  use. 
This  mixture  sets  in  about  two  days. 

To  Restore  the  Elasticity  of  Cane-Chair  Bot- 
toms.— Turn  u\)  the  cliair  bottoms,  and  with  a  hot  water  and 
sponge  wash  the  cane  work  well,  so  that  it  may  be  well  soakeii ; 
should  it  be  dirty  you  must  add  soap.  Let  it  dry  in  the  air,  and 
you  will  find  it  as  tight  and  firm  as  wlien  iiew,  provided  the  cane 
is  not  broken. 

Moths  in  Carpets. — Moths  will  work  in  carpets  in  rooms 
that  are  kej)t  warm  in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer.  A  sure  method 
of  removing  the  pests  is  to  pour  strong  alum-water  on  the  floor  to 
the  distance  of  half  a  yard  around  the  edges  before  laying  the 
carpets.  Then  once  or  twice  during  the  season  sprinkle  dry  salt 
over  the  carpet  before  sweej)ing.  Insects  do  not  like  salt,  and  suf- 
ficient adheres  to  the  carpet  to  prevent  them  alighting  upon  it. 

To  Destroy  Moths  in  Carpets.— Take  a  wet  sheet  or 

other  cloth,  lay  it  upon  the  carpet,  aiul  then  rub  a  hot  flat-iron 
over  It,  so  as  to  convert  the  water  into  steam,  which  permeates  the 
carpet  beneath,  and  destroys  the  life  of  the  grub. 

To  Clean  Carpets. — The  carpet  being  first  well  beaten  and 
freed  from  dust,  tack  it  tlown  to  the  floor;  then  mix  half  a  pint  of 
buUock's-gall   with   two  gallons  of   soft   water;  scrub  it  well  with 


UPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNllURE    MEN.  II9 

soap  and  the  gall-mixture;  let  it  remain  till  quite  dry,  and  it  will 
be  perfectly  cleansed,  and  look  like  new,  as  the  colors  will  be  re- 
stored to  their  original  brightness.  The  brush  used  must  not  be 
too  hard,  but  rather  long  in  the  hair,  or  it  will  rub  up  the  nap  and 
damage  the  article. 

To  Make  Parchment   Transparent.— Soak  a  thin 

skin  of  parchment  in  a  strung  ley  of  wood  ashes,  often  wringing  it 
out  till  it  becomes  transparent ;  then  strain  it  on  a  frame,  and  let 
dry. 

This  will  be  much  improved  if,  after  it  is  dry,  you  give  it  a  coat, 
on  both  sides,  of  clear  mastic  varnish,  diluted  with  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine. 

Tinting  on  Parchment. — On  a  good  skin  you  may  get 
an  even  tint,  as  follows:  After  "inking  in"  the  plan,  cover  (with 
a  large  color  brush)  rather  more  than  the  whole  of  it  with  a  strong 
wash  of  alum  dissolved  in  water,  taking  care  that  every  portion  is 
saturated  by  the  solution,  and  when  dry  brush  away  the  dry  alum, 
and  the  parchment  will  then  take  color  almost  as  easily  as  paper, 
and  the  ink  will  not  be  disturbed. 

India  Ink  Running. — if  it  is  for  drawing  plans  you  may 
prevent  it  running  by  adding  a  little  sugar  to  the  India  ink. 

Erasing  Indian  Ink. — The  most  effective  mode  of  erasing 
Indian  ink  lines  is  by  rubbing  the  part  to  be  erased  with  sand- 
paper of  the  finest  quality,  which  will  not  only  effectually  remove 
the  ink,  but  will  leave  a  clear,  smooth  surface,  which  will  take  the 
ink  better  than  at  first,  and    may  be  colored  upon. 

To  Make  Carbon  Paper.— Carbon  paper,  for  copying 
or  duplicating,  can  be  made  in  the  following  manner:  Take  sweet 
oil,  mixed  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  with  either  of  the  following 
paints  (to  produce  the  color  desired):  Prussian  blue,  lampblack, 
Venetian  red,  or  chrome  green ;  they  should  be  ground  fine  on  the 
stone.  Use  rather  thin  but  firm  paper,  put  on  with  a  sponge,  and 
wipe  off  as  dry  as  possible;  then  lay  them  between  uncolored 
paper,  and  press  by  laying  a  weight  or  some  other  heavy  flat  sub- 


120  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

Stance  upon  them  until  the  surplus  oil  is  absorbed,  when  it  is  ready 
for  use. 

Removing  Oil  Stains  from  Tiles.— Vou  can  remove 

oil  stains  from  tiles  completely  by  mixing  fuller's  earth  into  a  thick 
paste  with  water,  and  spreading  it  over  the  tiles,  letting  it  remain 
twenty-four  hours,  and  then  wiping  it  off.  If  the  mark,  then,  has 
not  quite  gone,  put  on  another  paste. 

To  Polish.  Floors. — Put  some  spermaceti  into  a  saucepan 
on  the  fire,  and  mix  it  with  enough  turpentine  to  make  it  quite 
fluid;  then  with  a  piece  of  flannel  ])ut  it  very  thinly  on  the  floor. 
It  must  then  be  rubbed  with  a  dry  flannel  and  brushed  in  the  same 
way  that  oak  stairs  are  polished.  This  j^art  of  the  process,  rubbing 
and  brushing  takes  a  long  time  to  do  thoroughly. 

Another. — Dissolve  half  a  ])Ound  of  potash  in  three  pints  of  water, 
in  a  saucepan  on  the  fire ;  when  the  water  boils  throw  in  one 
pound  of  beeswax  cut  up  in  small  pieces ;  stir  it  well  until  the  wax 
is  quite  melted.  When  the  polish  is  cold,  if  it  be  too  thick,  add 
more  water,  then  with  a  brush  paint  the  boards  evenly  with  it; 
and  when  it  has  dried  rub  them  with  a  flannel  tied  at  the  end  of  a 
broom. 

Black  TVax. — Add  one  ounce  of  beeswax  to  half  an  ounce 
of  Burgundy  pitch;  melt  them  together,  and  add  one  ounce  and  a 
half  of  ivory -black,  ground  very  fine,  and  dried. 

Green  Wax. — Melt  one  ounce  of  beeswax,  and  add  half 
an  ounce  of  verditer ;  let  the  pii)kin  be  large  enough,  as  the  wax 
will  immediately  boil  up.  Stir  it  well,  and  add  the  eighth  part  of 
an  ounce  of  resin,  when  it  will  be  sufticiently  hard  and  fit  for  use. 

To  Polish  Tortoise  Shell  or  Horn.— Having  scraped 

your  work  perfectly  smooth  and  level,  rub  it  with  very  fine  sand- 
paper or  Dutch  rushes;  repeat  the  rubbing  with  a  bit  of  felt 
dipped  in  a  very  finely  powdered  charcoal  with  water,  and  lastly, 
with  rotten-stone  or  putty-powder;  and  finish  with  a  piece  of  soft 
wash-leather,  damped  with  a  little  sweet  oil. 

To  Clean  Looking  Glasses.— Sponge  down  the  glass 


UPHOLSTERKKS  AND  FUkNITURE  .MEN.  121 

with  gum  and  water,  equal  parts,  then  dust  down  with  whitening, 
and  finish  with  a  soft  old  silk  handkerchief. 

To  Remove  Ink  Stains.— ink  stains  may  be  removed 
from  a  mahogany  table  by  putting  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  nitre 
into  a  teaspoonful  of  water,  and  touching  the  part  stained  with  a 
feather  dipped  into  the  mixture  ;  immediately  the  ink  stain  disap- 
pears, the  place  must  be  rubbed  with  a  rag  wet  with  cold  water,  or 
there  will  be  a  white  mark,  which  will  not  easily  be  removed.  Ink 
stains  on  silver  or  plated  articles  may  be  removed  immediately  and 
effectually  without  doing  any  injury  to  the  things,  by  making  a 
little  chloride  of  lime  into  a  paste  with  water  and  rubbing  the 
stains  until  they  disappear,  and  afterwards  washing  the  article  with 
soap  and  water.  Ink  stains  may  be  removed  from  colored  table 
covers  by  dissolving  a  teaspoonful  of  oxalic  acid  in  a  teacuijful  of 
hot  water  and  rubbing  the  stained  part  well  with  the  solution.  Ink 
stams  may  be  taken  out  of  anything  white  by  simply  putting  a  little 
powdered  salts  of  lemon  on  the  stain,  damping  it,  allowing  it  to  re- 
main about  five  minutes,  and  then  washing  it  out  with  soap  and 
water,  when  the  stain  will  disappear.  Ink  may  be  removed  from 
boards  by  applying  some  strong  muriatic  acid  or  spirits  of  salt  with 
a  piece  of  rag  and  afterwards  well  washing  the  place  with  water. 

To  Remove  Stains  From  Wood.— To  half  a  pint  of 

soft  water  put  an  ounce  of  oxalic  acid  and  half  an  ounce  of  butter 
of  antimony;  shake  it  well,  and  when  dissolved  it  will  be  very  use- 
ful in  extracting  stains,  as  well  as  ink  from  wood,  if  not  of  too 
long  standing. 

To  Clean  Velvet. — Velvet  requires  very  careful  manipula- 
tion, as  it  loses  its  fine  appearance  if  wrung  or  pressed  when  it  is 
wet.  To  remove  dust: — Strew  very  fine  dry  sand  upon  the  velvet, 
and  brush  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  until  all  the  sand  is  removed. 
The  brush  must  be  clean.  To  remove  dirt: — Dissolve  ox-gall  in 
nearly  boiling  clean  water,  and  add  some  spirits  of  wine.  Dip  a 
soft  brush  into  this  solution  and  brush  tlie  dirt  out  of  the  velvet. 
It  may  require  repeated  brushing.     After  this,  hang  it  evenly  un  to 


122  PRACTICAL.  INFORMATION    FOR    CABINK  1 -MAKERS. 

dry.  For  finishing,  api)ly  a  weak  solution  of  gum  by  nieans  of  a 
sponge  to  the  reverse  side  of  the  velvet. 

To  Remove  Paint  or  Stain  from  Wood.— Dissolve 

potash  in  water,  making  a  strong  solution,  w  itli  tins  wash  the  sur- 
face of  the  work,  allowing  it  to  soak  a  few  minutes.  If  the  i)aint 
cannot  then  be  scraped  ofif,  give  the  wood  another  application,  and 
repeat  until  the  paint  is  removed.  Afterwartl,  wash  the  surface 
with  clean  water  sufficiently  to  ensure  the  removal  of  all  the 
potash. 

To  Remove  Varnish  from  Wood.— A  strong  api)lica- 

tion  of  ordinary  spirits  of  camphor  will  remove  almost  any  kind  of 
))olish  or  varnish.  Give  the  spirit  time  to  evaporate  before  re- 
polishing,  or  it  will  injure  the  new  polish. 

The  solution  of  potash,  mentioned  above,  will  also  remove  var- 
nish. 

Tests  for  Gilding. — if  a  gik  surface  be  touched  with  a 
drop  of  chloride  of  gold  or  nitrate  of  silver  solution,  the  former  will 
produce  a  brown,  the  latter  a  grey  spot  if  the  coating  be  an  alloy, 
but  will  have  no  effect  upon  pure  gold.  For  gilt  paper,  moisten  with 
a  drop  of  chloride  of  sulphur,  wliich  will  immediately  produce  a 
dark  brown  margin  if  the  covering  is  not  pure  gold.  Metallic 
spangles  shaken  in  close  flasks  with  chloride  of  sulphur,  sufiier  no 
change  if  gold,  otherwise  they  gradually  darken ;  but  if  under 
slight  pressure,  as  in  hermetically  sealed  tubes,  gold  spangles  dis- 
appear in  a  short  time  by  conversion  into  chloride  of  gold. 

Anti- Attrition. — 'This  mixture  is  made  of  one  part  of  plum- 
bago or  blacklead  ground  very  fine,  and  four  parts  of  hog's  lard  or 
grease,  mixed  well  together.  It  prevents  tlie  effects  of  friction 
much  better  tlian  oil  or  other  grease,  and  is  very  useful  for  the 
turner,  and  will  be  found  to  make  the  lathe  work  much  easier,  as 
well  as  to  be  a  great  saving  in  oil,  which  with  constant  use  grows 
stiff,  and  sensibly  impedes  the  motion;  while  this  preparation,  once 
applied,  will  last  a  long  time  without  requiring  renewal. 

To  Remove  Grease  from  Cloth.  -  Drop  on  the  spot 

some  oil  of  tartar,  or  salt  of  wormwcjod,  which  has  been  left  in  a 


aPHOLSTERERS    AND    FURNITURE    MEN.  1 23 

damp  place  till  it  turns  into  a  fluid;  then  imnicliatcly  wash  the 
place  with  lukewarm  soft  water,  and  then  with  cold  water,  and 
the  spot  will  disappear. 

This  will  be  found  very  useful,  as  it  frequently  hapi)ens  that  the 
cloth  of  the  card  tables,  and  the  inside  flaps  of  secretaries,  are 
spotted  and  greasy.  By  proceeding  as  above,  every  spot  of  grease 
will  be  completely  taken  out. 

Putty.— Painters  u^t  various  kinds  of  putty,  using  varnish, 
japan,  oil,  keg  lead,  dry  lead,  red  lead,  whiting,  zinc  white,  umber,' 
yellow  ochre,  etc.,  in  the  composition  of  the  various  kinds.  In 
mixing  up  putty  the  painter  should  always  be  governed  by  the 
time  he  may  have  in  which  to  complete  his  work.  If  the  work  he 
is  doing  must  be  completed  in  an  uiirea.?onably  short  time,  the 
putty  should  be  mixed  with  very  little  or  no  oil,  although  a  putty 
mixed  with  japan  alone  will  dry  quicker,  so  as  to  bear  sand-paper- 
ing in  the  shortest  possible  time,  but  it  is  a  mealy,  poor  kind  of 
putty,  and  is  apt  to  shrink,  allowing  damj^iess  to  penetrate  it  when 
rubbed  with  pumice-stone  and  water. 

The  best  and  toughest  kind  of  putty  is  made  of  keg  and  dry 
white  lead,'  with  only  a  small  portion  of  ja[)an.  In  making  this 
kind  of  putty,  use  about  4  i,ounds  of  keg  lead  to  about  a  gill  of 
japan,  mixing  them  thoroughly  together;  then  add  dry  white  lead 
in  small  quantities,  pounding  it  lightly  at  first,  and  when  you  have 
added  sufficient  dry  lead  to  form  a  mass  like  dough,  use  the  mallet 
or  hammer  very  freely.  If  dry  zinc  white  is  used  instead  of  dry 
lead,  the  putty  will  be  much  better.  This  putty  should  be  allowed 
three  or  four  days  to  dry.  Another  kind  of  this  nece.ssary  com- 
pound is  made  by  using  keg  lead  and  red  lead.  The  latter  is  of 
itself  a  powerful  dryer,  consequently  it  does  not  require  so  much 
japan  to  dry  the  putty.  It  works  very  easy  and  adheres  to  the 
wood  very  tenaciously,  and  is  not  apt  to  swell  or  slnink. 

How  to  Boil  Linseed  Oil.— First  be  sure  that  you  have 
the  pure  linseed  oil.  There  is  much  sold  as  such  manufactured  out 
of  peanuts.  The  test  is  .simple.  Nut  oil  has  a  sharp,  acid  taste, 
smells  just  like  sour  peanuts,  is  darker  and  th.icker  than   the  other 


124  PRACTICAL    INFCKMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

oil,  has  a  clinging  tendency  wlien  rubbed  on  the  finger,  dries  with 
a  gloss  even  in  priming  coats,  and  is  very  much  given  to  gumming 
up  when  sanded.  Pure  linseed  oil  has  a  bright  amber  color,  runs 
freely,  sparkles  when  flowing  from  the  can,  tastes  smooth  antl  mild, 
and  has  tiie  smell  of  a  flax-seed  poultice.  When  you  are  satisfied 
that  you  have  the  genuine  oil,  and  wisli  to  boil  it  thoroughly,  first 
take,  say  about  one-half  i)ound  of  red  lead  and  tiie  same  quantity 
of  sugar  of  lead,  put  into  five  gallons  of  the  oil,  and  place  over  a 
slow  fire  so  as  to  boil  evenly.  Do  not  let  your  fire  get  either  too 
hot  or  too  low;  keep  an  even  temperature,  if  possible;  coke  or 
charcoal  is  preferable  to  either  hard  or  soft  stone  coal.  Avoid  a 
wood  fire,  as,  after  the  oil  gets  to  boiling  heat,  a  sudden  flame 
shooting  up  might  ignite  the  entire  lot.  Let  it  boil  seven  hours 
full ;  the  red  lead  and  sugar  of  lead  will  then  become  dark  brown. 
Stir  all  the  time  while  boiling  slowly,  and  only  one  way;  do  not 
change  the  direction  of  the  stroke  or  you  will  burn  the  oil,  just  as 
you  would  starch.  After  you  have  taken  it  from  the  fire,  cover  it 
up  and  let  it  stand  to  cool  off,  say  overnight.  The  sediment  will 
settle ;  pour  out  the  oil  and  strain ;  your  oil  is  boiled,  and  a  better 
article  you  could  not  have,  as  all  the  fatty  substances  are  de- 
stroyed. This  is  the  English  method,  used  in  all  the  carriage  fac- 
tories in  the  United  Kingdom. 

Mordants  for  Staining  Wood. — Sulphuric  acid,  more 
or  less  diluted,  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  color  to  be  pro- 
duced, is  applied  with  a  brush  to  the  wood,  previously  cleaned 
and  dried.  A  lighter  or  darker  brown  stain  is  obtained,  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  acid.  When  the  acid  has  acted  suffi- 
ciendy  its  further  action  is  arrested  by  the  application  of  am- 
monia. Tincture  of  iodine  yields  a  fine  brown  coloration,  which, 
however,  is  not  permanent  unless  the  air  is  excluded  by  a  thick 
coating  of  polish.  Nitric  acid  gives  a  fine  permanent  yellow, 
which  is  converted  into  a  dark  brown  by  the  subsequent  applica- 
tion of  tincture  of  iodine. 

Ebonizing. — To  French-polish  a  black  sideboard  it  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  to  use  black  polish,  but  it  is  usual  to  do  so, 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  1 25 

as  it  produces  a  finer  black.  The  sideboard,  or  any  kind  of  fiirni- 
ture,  is  polished  in  the  usual  manner,  by  using  black  polish,  and 
filling  up  the  grain  with  black  ;  the  simplest  kind  is  weak  glue  and 
lamp-black.  When  dry,  paper  down  and  polish  as  usual.  The 
rubber  of  the  polisher  should  be  dipped  in  ivory-black,  or  gas- 
black,  moistened  with  black  polish,  covered  with  linen  rag,  a  touch 
of  linseed  oil,  and  used  as  usual.  Black  polisli  is  made  thus: — 
One  gill  dark  French  polish  poured  into  a  clean  bottle,  then  add 
Yo  oz,  best  ivory-black,  or  gas-black  is  best;  in  fine  powder  well, 
shake  until  mixed,  and  used  as  before  described.  Gas-black  is 
made  by  impinging  a  broad  gas  burner  on  the  bottom  of  a  glue- 
pot  or  sheet  of  metal,  and  gathering  the  black  as  made. 

Picture  Frames. — A  simple  plan  for  holding  frames  in 
position  till  dry  is  to  tack  lengths  of  wood  on  a  board,  and  after 
laying  the  frame  between  them,  gently  press  wedges  till  the  joints 
are  home.  It  is  such  a  common  complaint  of  the  nonconformity 
between  the  first  and  last  mitre,  that  gilt  corners  are  made  ready, 
like  charity,  to  cover  a  multitude  of  sins.  These,  if  laid  on  a  damp 
cloth,  soon  become  sufificiently  pliable  to  take  the  bend  of  the 
moulding,  and,  besides  being  very  cheap,  are  a  great  improvement 
and  a  blessing  to  many  besides  amateurs. 

Varnisll  for  Tools. — For  tool  handles  there  is  nothing 
better  than  shellac  varnish.  It  should  be  put  on  before  the  handle 
is  removed  from  the  lathe.  Use  it  the  same  as  French  polish,  and 
in  small  quantities. 

Painting  on  Zinc. — According  to  tlie  Painters  Magazine, 
painting  on  zinc  is  made  easier  by  employing  a  mordant  composed 
of  one  quart  of  chloride  of  copper,  one  of  nitrate  of  copper,  and 
one  of  sal  ammonia,  dissolved  in  64  parts  of  water,  and  to  this 
mixture  is  added  one  part  of  commercial  hydrochloric  acid.  This 
is  brushed  over  the  plate  of  zinc,  and  after  i  2  or  24  hours  it  drys  a 
dullish  gray  color.  Painting  upon  this  surface  the  colors  will  ad- 
here in  a  perfect  manner.  Another  method,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  is  as  follows :  Procure  some  muriatic  acid  of  full 
strength,  and  drop  into  it  some   pieces  oi  zinc   until   effervescence 


126  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

ceases.  Add  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  and  with  a  sponge  tied 
to  a  stick  wash  over  every  part  of  the  surface  to  be  painted.  This 
roughens  the  surface  and  takes  ofif  that  sort  of  greasiness  which 
prevents  paint  from  adhering.  After  tlie  acid  has  remained  a  short 
time  wash  it  over  with  water  or  dikited  vinegar,  dry  ofif  and  pahit. 

Violin  Varnish. — Tlie  Scietitific  American  gives  the  fol- 
lowing formula  for  preparing  a  beautiful  varnish  for  violins  :  Rec- 
tified alcohol,  half  gallon ;  add  six  ounces  gum  sandarac,  three 
ounces  gum  mastic,  and  half  a  pint  turpentine  varnish ;  put  the 
above  in  a  tin  can  by  the  stove,  frequently  shaking  until  well  dis- 
solved. Strain  and  keep  for  use.  If  you  find  it  harder  than  you 
wish,  thin  with  more  turpentine  varnisli. 

Imitating  Mahogany. — ^^'hen  curly-veined  birch  and 
beech  have  been  regularly  brushed  with  aquafortis  and  dried  at  the 
fire,  they  both  look  remarkabl)-  like  mahogany.  A  decoction  of 
logwood  and  fustic,  when  put  on  in  a  tepid  state,  produces  a  simi- 
lar eft'ect.  The  French  mode  consists  in  brushing  the  white  limber 
with  a  dilute  solution  of  nitrous  acid;  it  is  then  coated  once  or 
twice  with  finishing  spirit,  in  which  a  quantity  of  carbonate  of  soda 
and  dragon's-blood  has  been  dissolved,  the  proper  projjortions  to  i 
gill  of  spirit  being  ^  of  an  ounce  of  the  soda,  and  ]^  of  an  ounce 
of  the  blood;  the  wood  is  afterwards  finished  with  varnish  or 
polish  of  a  reddish-brown  tint.  In  producing  this  shade  of  color, 
London  stainers  frequently  use  a  rich  brownish-red  kind  of  chalk, 
the  color  of  which  is  analogous  to  that  of  fine  Spanish  maliogany. 
It  is  commonly  applied  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder,  by  means  of 
a  brush,  and  then  well  rubbed  with  another  brush  or  coarse  flannel. 

To  Stain  Beech  a  Mahogany  Color.— Put  2  oz.  of 

<lragon's-blood,  broken  in  jjieces,  into  a  quart  of  rectified  sjjirits  of 
wine;  let  the  botde  stand  in  a  warm  place,  shake  it  frequently; 
when  dissolved  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Imitation  of  Mahogany. — Plane  the  surface  smooth, 
and  rub  with  a  solution  of  nitrous  acid.  Then  apply  with  a  soft 
brush    one    ounce   of  dragon's-blood  dissolved  in  about  a  pint  of 


UPHOLSTERERS  AND  FURNITURE  MEN.  1 27 

alcohol,  and  with  yi  of  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  soda  mixed  and 
filtered.  When  the  brilliancy  of  tlie  polish  diminishes,  it  may  be 
restored  by  the  use  of  a  little  cold-drawn  linseed-oil. 

Bronzing  Inlaid  Work. — a  method  used  for  decorating 
inlaid  work  is  the  use  of  a  bronzing  liquid,  which  consists  of  a  fluid 
bronze  composition  formed  by  combining  metallic  powder  of  gild- 
ing and  bronze  powder  with  collodion,  which  composition  is  ca- 
pable of  being  applied  as  a  bronze  liquid  to  surfaces  of  wood,  iron, 
or  any  solid  material,  for  the  purpose  of  coating  the  same  for  decor- 
ation or  preservation. 

To  Imitate  King  or  Botany  Bay  Wood.— Boil  i^ 

lb.  French  berries  in  2  quarts  of  water  till  of  a  deep  yellow,  and 
while  boiling  hot  give  two  or  tliree  coats;  when  nearly  dry,  form 
the  grain  with  black  stain,  which  must  also  be  used  hot.  For 
variety,  to  heighten  the  color,  after  giving  it  two  or  three  coats  of 
yellow,  give  one  of  strong  logwood  liquor,  and  then  use  the  black 
stain  as  directed. 

Black  Stain. — Boil  i  lb.  of  lowood  in  4  quarts  of  water,  add 
a  double  handful  of  walnut  peels  or  shells;  boil  it  up  again,  take 
out  the  chips,  add  a  pint  of  the  best  vinegar,  and  it  will  be  fit  for 
use ;  apply  it  boiling.  This  will  be  improved,  if,  when  dry,  a  solu- 
tion ot  green  copperas,  an  ounce  to  a  quart  of  water,  is  applied  hot 
over  the  first  stain. 

Black  Stain  for  Immediate  Use.— Boil  >4  lb.  of  chip 

logwood  in  2  quarts  of  water,  add  i  oz.  of  ])earlash,  and  apply  it 
hot  to  the  work  with  a  brush.  Then  take  y^  lb.  of  logwood,  boil 
it  as  before  in  2  quarts  of  water,  and  add  i^  oz.  of  copperas ;  strain 
it  off,  put  in  }4.  lb.  of  rusty  steel  filings;  with  this  go  over  the  work 
a  second  time. 

Brown  Stain. — Paint  over  the  wood  with  a  solution  made 
by  boiling  i  part  catechu,  cutch,  or  gambier,  with  30  parts  of 
water  and  a  litde  soda.  This  is  allowed  to  dry  in  the  air, 
and  then  the  wood  is  painted  over  with  another  solution  made 
of   I   part  of  bichromate    of  potash  and  30  parts  of  water.     By 


125  PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    FOR    CABINET-MAKERS, 

a  little  ditTerence  in  the  mode  of  treatment,  and  by  varying  the 
strength  of  the  solutions,  various  shades  of  color  may  be  given  with 
these  materials,  which  will  be  permanent,  and  tend  to  preserve  the 
wood. 

Red  stain. —  i.  Take  i  lb.  of  Brazil  wood  to  i  gallon  of 
water,  boil  3  hours  with  i  oz.  of  pearlash,  brush  it  hot  on  the  wood, 
and  while  hot  brush  the  wood  with  a  solution  made  with  2  oz.  of 
alum  in  i  quart  of  water.  2.  An  infusion  of  Brazil  wood  in  stale 
urine,  in  the  proportion  of  a  pound  to  a  gallon  for  wood ;  to  be 
laid  on  when  boiling  hot,  and  should  be  laid  over  with  alum  water 
before  it  dries.  Or,  a  solution  of  dragon's-blood  in  spirits  of  wine 
may  be  used. 

Red  Stain  for  Bedsteads  and  Common  Chairs. 

Archil  will  produce  a  very  good  stain  of  itself  when  used  cold;  but 
if,  after  one  or  two  coats  being  applied  and  suffered  to  get  almost 
dry,  it  is  brushed  over  with  a  hot  solution  of  pearlash  in  water,  it 
will  improve  the  color. 

Walnut  stain. — Water,  i  quart;  washing  soda,  i^  oz.; 
Vandyke  brown,  2^  oz.;  bichromate  of  potash,  i^  oz.  Boil  for 
10  minutes,  and  apply  with  a  brush,  in  either  hot  or  cold  state. 


IISTDEX. 


Anti-attrition,  122. 

Belts,  to  prevent  slipping,  108. 

Black  stain,  127. 

Boiler  incrustation,  108. 

Bronzing,  54. 

inlaid  work,  127. 

on  metal,  no. 
Brown  stain,  127. 

Bruises  in  furniture,  to  take  out,  102. 
Brushes  lor  varnishing,  29. 
Cane-chair  bottoms,  to  restore  elasticity,  118. 
Carbon-paper,  to  make,  118. 
Carpets,  to  clean,  118. 

to  destroy  moths  in,  118. 
Carving,  reeding   etc.,  18. 
Cements  for  aquariums,  118. 

for  china,  117. 

for  glass,  117. 

for  joining  leather,  117. 

for  leather  and  wood,  117 

for  stopping  flaws,  103. 

for  turners,  103. 
Circular  saws,  to  remedy  splits  in,  106. 
Color  harmony  in  grained  work,  67. 
Colored  woods,  metals,  etc.,  11. 
Colors  for  outlines  of  ornaments,  66. 
Colors,  to  mix,  66. 

bufi",  66. 

carnation,  66. 

chestnut,  dark,  66. 

Chinese  white,  65. 

chocolate,  66. 

cream,  65. 

drab,  65. 

fawn,  65. 

French  grey,  66. 

gold,  imitation  of,  66. 

green,  grass,  66. 

green,  olive,  66. 

lead,  66. 

peach  blossom,  66. 

pearl,  65. 

purple,  66. 

salmon,  66. 

silver,  66. 

stone,  66. 

straw,  65. 

varnish  green,  69. 

violet,  66. 

white  lead,  68. 

yellow,  66. 
Composition  for  frame  ornaments,  49. 
Cracks  in  drawing-boards,  104. 
Dye,  black,  fine,  44. 

blue,  fine,  44. 

gray,  46. 

green,  45. 

liquid,  for  brightening  and  setting,  46. 

orange,  46. 

piirpie,  46. 

red,  45. 

yellow,  fine,  45. 
Dyeing  wood,  43. 
Ebonizing,  124. 
Ebony  finish,  33. 
Engravings,  to  clean,  113. 
Files,  soft,  109 
Filigree,  silver,  to  clean,  no. 


Fillers,  23. 

cherry,  25. 

light-wood,  24. 

oak,  25. 

rosewood,  25. 

sizing,  25. 

walnut,  24. 
Finishing,  20. 

processes  of,  22. 

varieties  of,  31. 

dead-finish,  32. 
ebony  finish,  33. 
French  polishing,  34. 
varnish  liiiish,  33. 
wax  finish,  33. 
wax  finish,  imitation,  33. 
flowing,  30. 
Floors,  to  polish,  120. 
Framing  work,  ii. 
French  polish,  34,  36. 
French  polishing,  31. 
Furniture  cream,  96. 
Furniture  paste,  97. 

General  remarks  on  designs  for  cabinet  work,  g. 
Gilding,  47. 
Gilding,  burnish,  51 

applying  the  size,  52. 

burnishing,  53. 

finishing,  53. 

laying  the  gold,  52. 

matting  01  dead  gold,  53. 

polishing,  52. 

preparing  the  woodwork,  51. 

gilders'  cushion,  48. 

oil,  50. 

sizes  for,  48. 

to  manipulate  gold  leaf,  54. 

oil  size  for,  49. 

parchment  size  for,  49. 

gold  size  for  burnish,  49. 

the  requisites,  48. 

to  prevent  gold  adhering.  49. 
Gilding,  embossed,  for  illuminating,  114. 

silvering  a.. d  bronzing,  47. 

tests  for,  96. 
Glue,  98. 

portable,  10 1. 

mixing,  99 

to  prepare,  98. 

to  prevent  cracking,  100. 

to  resist  moisture,  100. 
Glue  pot,  99. 
Graining,  55. 

grounds,  58. 

bird's-eye  maple,  59. 
mixing  colors,  58. 
mahogany,  58. 
oak,  59. 
rosewood,  58. 
the  pmcess,  56. 
Grease,  to  remove  (rem  cloth,  97. 
Gums  and  their  qualities,  69. 

amber,  69. 

anime,  70. 

bleached  shellac,  81. 

copal,  70. 

dama',  72. 

lac,   71. 


b^-iu 


130 


INDEX. 


Gums,  masiic,  71. 

resin,  72. 

saiidarac,  71. 
Horn,  to  polish,  120. 

to  stain  in  imitation  of  tortoise  shell,  115. 
How  to  boil  linseed-oil,  123. 
Imitation  mahogany,  126. 
India  ink,  to  erase,  119. 

to  prevent  running,  119 
Ingredients,  35. 
Ink  stains,  to  remove,  119. 
Inlaying,  15. 

with  shaded  wood,  16. 
Ironwork,  painting  and  preserving,  110 
Ivory,  artificial,  116. 

to  bleach,  116. 

to  soften,  116. 

or  bone,  to  stain  black,  116. 
blue,  116. 
red,  115. 
yellow,  116. 
Lac,  gum,  71. 
Lacquers,  colored,  91. 

for  brass,  91. 

hardwood,  88. 
Looking  glasses,  to  clean,  120. 
Marble,  imitation,  in. 

to  clean,  112. 

to  polish,  III. 

to  remove  stains  on,  iia. 
Mastic,  gum,  71. 
Metals,  polishing,  in. 
Mordants  for  staining  wood,  124. 
Moths  in  carpets,  to  destroy,  118. 
Moulding  ornaments,  etc.,  18. 
Painting  on  zinc,  125. 
Parchment,  tintingon,  119. 

to  make  transparent,  119. 
Paste  for  laying  cloth  or  leather,  102. 
Picture  frames,  125. 
Pictures,  to  clean,  112. 

to  smooth  damaged,  114. 
Polish  for  turner's  work,  38. 

French,  36. 

improved,  37. 

prepared  spirits,  37. 

revivers,  96. 

water-proof,  37. 
Putty,  123. 
Rasps,  109. 
Red  stain,  128. 

for  bedsteads,  128. 
Resin,  72. 
Rubbing,  30. 
Sandarac,  gum,  71. 
Saws,  band,  brazing,  106. 

circular,  to  remedy  splits  in,  106. 

sharpening,  106. 
Shell-gold,  53. 
Silver-size,  54. 
Solder,  solt,  preparing,  11a 
Stain,  black,  38. 

blue,  fine,  42. 

brown,  40. 

cherry,  41. 

crimson,  fine,  43. 

mahogany,  42. 

oak,  40. 

purple,  42. 

red,  41. 

rosewood,  41. 

v.alnul,  40. 


Stain,  yellow,  43. 
Staining,  38. 
Stains,  surface,  42. 

to  brighten,  43. 

to  remove  from  wood,  121. 
.Steampipes,  non-conducting  covering  for,  108 
Steel  scrapers,  to  cut,  105. 
Tempera,  67. 
Tests  for  gilding,  122. 
Tiles,  to  remove  oil  stains  from,  120. 
Tints.  67. 

To  imitate  Botany  Bay  wood,  127. 
To  imitate  inlaying  of  silver  strings,  17. 
To  raise  old  veneers,  14. 
To  remove  gre.tse  from  cloth,  122, 
To  stain  beech,  126. 
Tones,  67. 
Tools,  oiling,  107. 

to  harden,  105. 

to  mark,  107. 

to  temper,  105. 

varnish  for,  108. 
Tortoise  shell,  imitation  of,  iis. 

to  polish,  120. 
Tracing-paper,  103. 
Tracings,  to  mount,  104. 
Turpentine,  oil  of,  73. 
Varnish,  amalgam,  109. 

amber,  pale,  69. 

bl.ick,  95. 

brown  hard  spirit,  87 

cabinet,  81. 

carriage,  82. 

copal,  80. 

crystal,  93. 

for  cane  and  basket  work,  96. 

for  iron,  95. 

for  paper,  93. 

for  tools,  125. 

violin,  126. 

for  tools,  108. 

lacquer,  hardwood,  88. 

mastic,  71. 

sealing-wax,  95. 

turpentine,  93. 

wainscot,  82. 

water,  94. 

white  spirit,  87. 
Varnishes,  69. 

application  of,  26. 

gums  and  their  qualities,  69. 

oil,  70 

oil,  preparation  of,  75. 

spirit  and  turpentine,  71. 

"  "  preparation  o(|  83. 

solvents,  72. 
.ilcohol,  ;?4. 
liiisecd-oil,  72. 
naphtha,  74. 
turpentine,  73. 
Varnish  pan,  29. 

to  remove  from  wood|  X2I. 
Velvet,  to  clean,  121. 
Veneers,  to  raise  old,  101. 
Walnut  stain,  128. 
Wateiproof  polish,  37. 
Wax,  black,  120. 

finish,   33. 

imitation,  33. 

green,  120. 
Wood  pulleys,  to  harden,  109. 


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THE     STEEL    SQUARE     AND     ITS     USES. 

Being  a  Description  of  the  Square  and  Its  Uses  in  Obtaining  the 
Lengths  and  Bevels  of  all  kinds  of  Rafters,  Hips,  Grroins,  Braces, 
Brackets,  Purlins,  Collar-Beams,  and  Jack-Kafters.  —  Also,  IlS 
Application  in  Obtaining  the  Bevels  and  Cuts  for  Hoppers,  Spring 
Moldings,  Octagons,  Stairs,  Diminished  Stiles,  &c. —  By  Fred.  T. 
Hodgson,  author  of  "Practical  Carpentry,"  "The  Builders' Guide," 
ce. —  Third  Edition,  Revised  and  Greatly  Enlarged. —  Illustrated 
■>y  Nearly  One  Hundred  Fine  Engi-avings. —  Cloth,  gilt.  .     .     $1 

This  is  the  only  practical  work  on  the  steel  square  and  its  uses  ever  published. 
It  is  thorough,  accurate,  clear,  and  easily  understood.  Confounding  terms  and 
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This  new  edition,  just  issued,  is  illustr.ated  by  nearly  one  hundred  handsome 
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CATALOnrE    OF  IXnUSTPTAL    riOOK<!. 

STEEL  SQUARES  AND  THEIR  USES. 

Being  a  Description  of  the  Various  8teel  .Squares  and  Tlieir  Uses 
iu  Solviug  a  large  number  of  Meclianieal  Problems  iu  Constructive 
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Its  Uses,"  "Practical  Carpentry,"  "The  Builders' Guide,"  ice- 
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PRACTICAL     CARPENTRY. 

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This  is  a  compact  and  handy  little  volume,  eontriining  the  most  useful  rules  and 
memoranda,  practically  tested  by  many  years'  experience  in  the  shop,  factory,  and 
building.  Also,  a  treatise  on  the  framing-square.  It  is  by  a  thoroughly  practical 
man,  and  contains  enough  that  is  not  easily  found  any  where  else  to  make  it  worth 
more  than  its  price  to  every  intelligent  carpenter. 

EASY     LESSONS     IN     ARCHITECTURE. 

Consisting  of  a  Series  of  Questions  and  Answers  explaining  in 
Simple  Language  the  Principles  and  Progress  of  Architecture 
from  the  Earliest  Times. —  By  Thomas  Mitchell. —  Illustrated  by 
nearly  One  Hundred  and  Fifty  Engravings. — New  Edition,  with 

American  additions. — Cloth 30'cents. 

Architecture  is  not  only  a  profession  and  an  art,  but  an  impoi-tant  branch  of 
every  liberal  education.  No  person  can  be  said  to  be  well  educated  who  has  not 
some  knowledge  of  its  general  principles  and  of  the  characteristics  of  the  different 
styles.  The  present  work  is  probably  the  best  architectural  textbook  for  beginnei'S 
ever  published.  The  numerous  illustrative  engravings  make  the  subject  very  simple, 
and  prevent  all  misunderstanding.  It  tells  all  about  the  different  styles,  their  pecu- 
liar features,  their  origin,  and  the  principles  that  underlie  their  construction. 

HINTS     AND     AIDS     TO     BUILDERS. 

Gives  hints  and  prices,  tells  how  to  measure,  explains  building 
terms,  and,  in  short,  contains  a  fund  of  information  for  all  who  are 
interested  in  building. — Paper 23  ceuts. 


CATALOGUE    OF  IXDFSTniAL    BOOKS. 

BUCK'S    COTTAGE    AND    OTHER    DESIGNS. 

Buck's  Designs  in  Architoeture,   showing  a  Variety  of   Designs, 
together  with  a  large  amount  of  Miscellaneous  Matter,  making  it 
a  very  valuable  book. —  Forty  designs  for  fifty  cents. 
Just  the  book  you  want,  if  you  are  going  to  build  a  cheap  and  comfortable  home. 
It  shows  a  great  variety  of  cheap  aud  medium-priced   cottages,  besides  giving  a 
number  of  useful  hints  and  suggestions  on  the  various  questions  lialde  to  arise  in 
building,  such  as  selections  of  site,  general   aiTangement  of  the  plans,  sanatary 
questions,  &c.     Cottages  costing  from  $300  to  $5,000  are  shown  in  considerate  va- 
riety, aud  nearly  every  taste  can  be  satisfied. 

The  information  on  site,  general  an*angement  of  jd.iii.  sanatary  iiiattr rs.  i^c.  is 
worth  .1  great  deal  more  than  the  cost  of  the  book. 

WATER-CLOSETS.—  ^  Historical,  Mechanical,  and   Sanatary 
Treatise. —  By   CiLENX    Brown,    Architect;    Associate    American 
Institute  of  Architects. —  Neatly  bound  in  cloth,  gilt  title.     .     $1 
This  book  contains  over  2.i0  engi-avings,  drawn  expressly  for  the  work  by  the 
author.     The  drawings  are  so  clear  that  the  distinctive  features  i)f  every  device  are 
easily  seen  at  a  glance,  and  the  descriptions  are  particularly  full  and  thorouiih.    Every 
known  water-closet  is  fully  descrilied,  and  an  account  given  of  its  qualities,  advan- 
tages, and  defects.     The  paramount  iinport.mce  of  this  (lc]>;irtinent  of  the  construc- 
tion of  our  houses  renders  all  comment  upon  the  value  iif  such  a  work  unnecessary. 

PLASTER:    HOW   TO    MAKE   AND    HOW  TO    USE, 

Being  a  (."oniplete  Guide  for  tlie  Plasterer  in  the  Preparation  and 
Application  of  all  kinds  of  Plaster.  iStucco,  Portland  Cement, 
Hydraulic  Cements,  Lime  of  Tiel.  Kosendale  and  other  Cements. 
With  Useful  and  Practical  Int'orniation  on  tlie  Ciiemistry, Qualities, 
and  Uses  of  the  Various  Kinds  of  Limes  and  (Vnients. — Together 
with  Kules  for  Measuring.  Compiiliug.  and  Valuing  Plaster  and 
Stucco  Work. —  To  which  is  appended  an  Illustrated  Glossary  of 
Terms  used  in  Plastering.  &c.— P.y  Fked.  T.  Hodgsox,  author  of 
"The  Builders'  Guide,  aii.l   Estimators'  P. ice-Book,"  "Practical 

Carpentry,"6ce.— Cloth,  gilt *] 

This  work  is  illustrated  with  numerous  encravings  in  the  text,  and  three  plates, 
giving  some  fortv  figures  of  ceilings,  center-iiieces.  cornices,  jianels.  and  soffits.  It 
is  an  invaluable  "liook  for  plasterers,  bricklayers,  masons,  builders,  architects,  and 
engineers. 

HANDSAWS:   THEIR    USE,  CARE,  AND    ABUSE. 

How  to  Sclr.-t  and  How  to  File  Them.— Being  a  Complete  (inide 
for  Seleeting,  Using,  and  Filing  all  kinds  of  IIan<isa\vs.  Baeksaws, 
Compass  and  Keyhole  Saws;  Web,  Haek.  and  liiitehers'  Saws; 
Showing  the  Shapes.  Forms.  Angles,  Pitehes,  and  Sizes  of  Saw- 
teeth suitable  for  all  kinds  of  Saws,  and  for  all  kinds  of  Wood, 
Bone,  Ivorv,  aud  Metal.— Togetiier  with  Hints  and  Suggestions 
on  the  Choice  of  Files,  Saw-sets,  Filing-elamps.  and  other  matters 
pertaining  to  the  Caro  and  Miinagemeiit.  of  all  classes  of  Hand 
t.ud  other  Small  Saws.— Bv  FuKD.  T.  Hodgson,  autiior  of  "The 
Ste(d  Scpiare  and  Its  Uses.'' "••  The  Slide-Kiile.  aiKl  How  to  Use  It," 
"The   Buihiers'  Guide,"  "Practical    Carpentry,"  &c.— Illustrated 

by  over  Seventy-five   Engravings. —  Cloth,  gilt $1 

This  work  is  intended  r^oro  prirti-nlnrlv  for  operative  carpenters,  joiners,  cab- 
Inet-muker8,carriage-b»ulder9,and  woodwor  .ers  generally, amateurs  or  professionals. 


CATALOGUE    OF  INDUSTRIAL   BOOKS. 

THE     PRACTICAL     UPHOLSTERER. 

Giving  Clear  Directions  for  Skillfully  Performing  all  kinds  of 
Upholsterers'  Work  in  Leather,  Silk,  Plush.  Reps,  Cottons,  Vel- 
vets, and  Carpetings. — Also,  for  Stuffing,  Embossing,  Welting, 
and  Covering  all  kinds  of  Mattresses,  &e. —  Rules  for  Measuring 
Valances,  Curtains,  Tapestry,  Window  and  Door  Drapery,  Curtain 
Bods,  Persian  Beds,  Mantel  Drapery,  Lambrequins,  Cushions, 
Floor-Cloths,  Festoon  Blinds  and  Curtain-Hangings,  and  all  kinds 
of  Upholstery. —  Fully  Illustrated  with  Engravings  of  Tools, 
Sketches  of  Furniture,  and  numerous  full-page  Illustrations  of 
Original  Decorative  Designs. —  By  A  Practical  Upholsteuek. 
12mo,  cloth $1 

This  work  contains  a  number  of  original  designs  in  drapery  and  upholstery, 
with  full  explanatory  text,  and  an  immense  number  of  working  illustrations.  It 
gives  a  description  of  tools,  appliances,  and  materials.  It  tells  how  to  upholster 
chairs,  parlor  furniture,  bedroom  furniture,  &c.  It  contains  rules  for  cutting  bed- 
hangings,  window-curtains,  door-liangings,  blinds,  and  for  measuring  and  cutting 
carpets.  It  gives  arithmetical  calculations  for  cutting  carpets,  curtains,  &c.,  mantle- 
board  drapery,  festoons,  and,  in  short,  everything  pertaining  to  upholstery. 

There  is  nothing  publislied  in  this  countiy  that  is  so  thorough  and  complete  in 
the  instructions  given  for  upholstering,  as  this  book.  It  is  invaluable  alike  to  the 
practical  workman  and  the  amateur. 

CABINET-MAKING,   UPHOLSTERING,   FURNITURE. 

Hints  and  Practical  Information  for  Cahinet-mahers,  Upholsterers, 
and  Furniture-men  Goteralh/. — Together  with  a  Descriprion  of  all 
kinds  of  Finishing,  with  Full  Directions  Therefor;  Varnishes, 
Polishes,  Stains  for  Wood,  Dyes  for  Wood.  Gilding  and  Silvering, 
Recipes  for  the  Factory,  Lacquers,  Metals,  Marbles,  &c.;  Pictures, 
Engravings,  «S;c. —  Cloth,  gilt $1 

This  book  contains  an  immense  amount  of  tlie  most  useful  information  for 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  manuf.acture,  superintendence,  or  construction  o£ 
furniture  or  woodwork  of  any  kind.  It  is  one  of  the  clieapost  and  best  books  ever 
published,  and  contains  over  one  thousand  hints,  suggestions,  and  methods;  and 
descriptions  of  tools,  appliances,  and  materials.  All  the  recipes,  rules,  and  directions 
have  been  carefully  revised  and  corrected  by  practical  men  of  great  experience,  so 
that  they  will  be  found  thoroughly  trustworthy.  It  contains  many  of  the  recipes 
recently  sold  at  from  .$5  to  .$500. 

THE      WORKSHOP      COM  PANION.-Part    I. 

A  Collection  of  Useful  and  Reliable  Recipes,  Rules,  Processes, 
Methods,  Wrinkles,  and  Practical  Hints,  for  the  Household  and 
the   Shop Paper,  35  cents. — 

This  is  a  book  of  164  closely  printed  pages,  forming  a  dictionary  of  practical 
information  for  mechanics,  amateurs,  housekeepers,  farmers. —  everybody.  It  is 
not  a  mere  collection  of  newspaper  clippings,  but  a  series  of  original  treatises  on 
varicus  subjects,  such  as  alloys,  cements,  inks,  steel,  signallishts,  polishing  mate- 
rials, and  the  art  of  polishing  wood,  met.als.  &c.;  varnishing,  cildinir,  silvoriui;.  l)ronz- 
iug,  b.cquering,  and  the  working  of  brass,  ivory,  alabaster,  iron,  steel,  glass,  &c 


CATALOCrVE    OF  IXDUSTEIAL   BOOKS. 

THE      WORKSHOP      COMPANION.-Part     II. 

A  Collection  of  Useful  and  Keliable  Keeipes,  Rules,  Processes, 

Methods,  Wrinkles,  and   Practical   Hints^  for  the  Household  and 

the  Shop Paper,  35  cents. ^ 

This  is  an  extension  of  the'first  part,  and  contains  subjects  which  have  not  been 
disensscd  in  the  earlier  volume.  These  two  volumes  contain  an  immense  amount 
of  practical  instruction  on  matters  in  regard  to  which  information  is  constantly 
desired  by  amateurs  and  practical  men. 

THE    PRACTICAL    ASSISTANT,  AND    WORKSHOP 

COMPANION.— A  Treasury  of  Useful  Information  relating 
to  the  Arts  and  Sciences  of  everj-day  life. — Containing  Useful 
and  Reliable  Processes,  Recipes,  Wrinkles,  Methods,  Rules,  Data, 
Tables;  and  Hints  for  the  Factory  and  the  Household,  the  Shop 
and  the  Farm.— Edited  by  John  Phin.— Cloth, $1 

This  is  Parts  I  a-.  II  of  "Tlie  Workshop  Companion,"  described  above,  hand- 
somely bound  together  in  cloth,  with  gilt  title. 

THE     AMATEURS'     HANDBOOK    OF    PRACTICAL 
INFORMATION,  for  the  Workshop  and  Laboratory. 

Second  Edition. —  Greatly  Enlarged. —  Neatly  bound.  .  .  15  cents. 

This  is  a  handy  little  book,  containing  just  the  information  needed  by  amateurs 
In  the  workshop  and  laboratory.  Directions  for  making  alloys,  fusible  metals, 
cements,  glues,  &c.;  and  for  soldering,  brazing,  lacquering,  bronzing,  staining  and 
polishing  wood,  tempering  tools,  cutting  and  working  glass,  varnishing,  silvering, 
gilding,  preparing  skins,  &c.  The  new  edition  contains  extended  directions  for 
preparing  polishing  powders,  freezing  mixtures,  colored  lights  for  tableaux,  solu- 
tions for  rendering  ladies'  dresses  incombustible,  &c.  There  has  also  been  added 
a  very  large  number  of  new  and  valuable  recipes. 

The  Workshop  Companion,  Part  I,  above  described,  contains  all  the  matter 
that  is  to  be  found  in  "Tlie  Amateurs'  Handbook." 

MECHANICAL     DRAUGHTING. 

The  Stnd€7it's  Illustrated  Guide  to  Practical  Draiigliting.—A.  series 
of  Practical  Instructions  for  Machinists,  Mechanics,  Apprentices, 
and  Students  at  Engineering  Establishments  and  Technical  In- 
stitutes.—  By  T.  P.  Pembkrton,  Draughtsman  and  Mechanical 
Engineer. —  illustrated  by  numerous  engravings. —  Cloth,  gilt.  $1 
This  is  a  simple  but  thorough  book,  by  a  draughtsman  of  twenty-five  years' 
experience.  It  is  intended  for  beginners  and  self  taught  students,  as  well  as  for 
those  who  pursue  the  study  under  the  direction  of  a  teacher. 

DRAWING     INSTRUMENTS. 

Being  a  Treatise  on  Draughting  Instruments,  with  Rules  for  their 
Use  and  Care;  Explanations  of  Scales,  Sectors,  and  Protractors. 
Together  with  Memoranda  for  Draughtsmen;  Hints  on  Purciiasing 
Instruments,  Paper,  Ink,  Pencils,  &c.  Also,  a  Price-list  of  all^  Mate- 
rials required  by  Draughtsmen. —  Illustrated  with  twenty-four  Explan- 
atory Illustrations. —  By  Fred.  T.  Hodgson.— Paper.  ...  25  cents. 


CATALOGUE    OF  INDUSTRIAL   BOOKS. 

THE     SLIDE-RULE,  AND     HOW    TO    USE    IT. 

Being  a  Compilation  of  Explanations,  Rules,  and  Instructions, 
suitable  for  Mechanics  and  others  interested  in  the  Industrial 
Arts. —  Compiled  and  arranged  by  Fred.  T.  Hodgson. — 25  cents. 

Rules  are  given  for  tlie  measurement  of  all  kinds  of  lioards  and  planks,  timber 
iu  the  round  or  square,  glaziers'  work  and  painting,  Ijiickwork,  ])avioi-s'  work,  tiling 
and  slating,  the  measurement  of  vessels  of  various  slnipes,  tlie  wedge,  inclined  planes, 
■wheels  and  axles,  levers,  the  weighing  and  measurement  ot  metals  and  all  solid 
bodies,  cylinders,  cones,  globes,  octagon  rules  and  formute,  the  measurement  of 
circles,  and  a  comparison  of  French  and  English  measures, with  much  other  informa- 
tion useful  to  builders,  carpenters,  bricklayers,  glaziers,  paviors,  slaters,  machinists, 
and  other  mechanics. 

Possessed  of  this  little  book  and  a  good  slide-rule,  mechanics  might  carry  in 
their  pockets  some  hundreds  of  times  the  power  of  calculation  tliat  they  now  liave 
iu  their  heads,  and  the  use  of  the  instrument  is  very  easily  acquired. 

THE  ENGINEER'S  SLIDE-RULE,  and  Its  Applications. 

A  Complete  Investigation  of  the  Principles  upon  which  the  Slide- 
Rule  is  constructed ;  together  with  the  Method  of  its  Application 
to  all  the  Purposes  of  the  Practical  Mechanic. —  By  William 
ToNKES. —  Paper 25  cents. 

THE     LIGHTNING     CALCULATOR. 

Practical  Hints  on  Lightning  Calciilating. — To  which  are  added 
Rules,  Tables,  Data,  FormulaB,  and  Memoranda,  for  making  rapidly 
those  everyday  calculations  that  are  required  in  business,  mechan- 
ics, and  agriculture. —  Paper 20  cents. 

A     CENTURY     OF     INVENTIONS. 

An  exact  reprint  of  the  famous  "Century  of  Inventions"  of  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester  (first  published  in  1663). — With  an  Intro- 
duction, Notes,  and  a  Life  of  the  Author. — With  Portrait  after  a 
Painting  by  Van  Dyke. —  Edited  by  John  Phin. —  Cloth.   .   .   .   $1 

This  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  books  ever  published.  The  famous 
"Century  of  Inventions"  is  of  more  than  mere  historical  interest.  It  contains  nu- 
merous hints  and  suggestions  of  what  might  be  accomplished,  and  will  be  found  of 
great  interest  and  value  to  every  one  interested  in  mechanics.  Many  persons  claim 
that  the  Marquis  of  Worcester  anticipated  many  of  our  most  important  modem 
inventions  and  discoveries.  Great  care  has  been  taken  to  reproduce  exactly  (so  far 
as  modern  type,  &c.,  could  do  it)  the  edition  published  by  the  Marquis  himself.  It 
has  been  entirely  out  of  print  for  many  years. 

THE       ELECTRICIAN'S       POCKET      COMPANION. 

Electrical  Rules,  Tables,  Tests,  and  Formulae. —  By  Andrew 
Jamieson,  C.E.,  F.R.S.E.— Fully  illustrated.— Cloth.  ...  75  cents. 

This  is  the  most  compact  and  thorough  work  in  the  market  for  the  practical 
electrician.  It  contains  minute  directions  for  all  calculations,  tests,  &c.,  with  clear 
engravings  of  the  apparatus  employed.  The  following  list  of  contents  will  give  au 
idea  of  its  scope : — 

Formulae  of  the  Absolute  Units,— Practical,  Electrical,  and  Mechanical. 

Heat  and   Light   Units. 

Electro-chemical   Equivalents,  Electrolysis,  Heat  and  Energy  of  Combustiou. 

Practical   Methods  of   Electrical   Measurements. 

Electric  Conductors:   Copper,  &o. —  Insulators:  Guttapercha,  &c. 

Submarine   Cables. —  Aerial   Land-lines. 

Electric  Lighting,  and  Transmissiou  of  Power. 


c  ATA  LOG  n:  or  ixdfstrtal  books. 


LECTURES    IN    A    WORKSHOP.-By  t.  p.  Pembertox, 

formerly  Associate  Editor  of  21te  Tcchnolor/ist;  author  of  "The 
Student's  Illustrated  Guide  to  Praciical  Draughting." — With  an 
Appendix  containing  the  famous  papers  by  Whitworth  "On  Plane 
Metallic  Surfaces  of  True  Planes";  "On  the  Uniform  System  of 
Screw-Threads";  "Address  to  tlie  Institution  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers, Glasgow";  "On  Standard  Decimal  Measures  of  Length." 

Cloth,  gilt $1 

We  have  here  a  sprightly,  fascinating  liook,  full  of  valuable  hints,  interesting 
anecdotes,  and  sh.irp  sayings.  It  is  not  a  compilation  of  dull  sermons  or  dry  math- 
ematics, but  a  live,  readable  book.  The  papers  by  Whitworth.  now  first  made 
readily  accessible  to  the  American  reader,  form  the  basis  of  our  modern  systems  of 
accurate  work. 

THE     NEW     POCKET     CYCLOPEDIA. 

A  Compendium  of  General  Knowledge,  Useful  and  Interesting 
Facts,  Valuable   Statistics,    and   Practical   Information. —  16mo., 

cloth 50  cents. 

This  is  a  handy  volume  of  164  pages,  printed  in  small  but  clear  type  on  very  fine 
thin  paper,  so  tliat  the  book  may  be  readily  carried  in  the  pocket  or  trunk.  It  con- 
tains all  those  facts  and  figures  which  are  most  commonly  referred  to  in  everyday 
life,  gi'eat  care  being  taken  to  secure  accuracy  and  clearness.  It  is  not  a  collection 
of  "curious  information"  made  up  from  newspaper  clippings,  but  a  thoroughly 
arranged  manual  of  the  most  useful  general  knowledge. 

HOW    TO     BECOME     A     GOOD     MECHANIC. 

Intended  as  a  Practical  Guide  to  Self-tangiit  Men:  Telling  What 
to  Study;  What  Books  to  Use;  How  to  Begin;  Wliat  Difficulties 
■will  be  met;  How  to  Overcome  Them.     In  a  word,  how  to  carry 
on   such  a  course   of  self-instruction   as   will   enable   the   young 
mechanic  to  rise  from  the  bench  to  something  higher. — Paper,  15c. 
This  is  not  a  book  of  "goody-goody"  advice,  neither  is  it  an  advertisement  of 
any  special  system,  nor  does  it  advocate  any  hobby.     It  gives  plain  practical  advice 
in  regard  to  acquiring  that  kno%vledj;e  which  alone  can  enable  a  young  man  engaged. 
in  any  pi-ofession  or  occupation  connected  with  the  industrial  arts  to  attain  a  po- 
sition hitrher  than  that  of  a  mere  workman. 

CEMENTS,    GLUE,    AND     PASTE. 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  all  kinds  of 
Cements,  Glue,  and   Paste. —  By  John   Phin,  author  of  "How  to 

Use  tlio  Microscope." — Paper 25  cents. 

Every  mechanic  and  householder  will  find  this  volume  of  almost  every -day  use. 

It  contains  nearly  two  liuiidred  recii)es  for  tlie  preparation  of  cements  for  almost 

every  conceivable  purjjose. 

HINTS      FOR      PAINTERS,     DECORATORS,     AND 
PAPER-HANGERS. 

Being  a  Selection  of  Useful  Rules,  Data,  Memoranda,  Methods, 
and  Suggestions  for  House.  Sliip,  and  Furniture  Painting;  Paper- 
Hanging,  Gilding.  Color-Mi.xiiig,  and  otlier  matters  useful  and 
instructive  to  painters  and  decorators. —  Prepared  with  special 
reference  to  the  wants  of  amateurs. — By  Ax  Old  Hand. — 
Paper 25  ceuts. 


CATALOGUE    OF  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKS. 

THE     HARDWOOD     FINISHER: 

With  Rules  and  Directions  for  finishing  in  Natural  Colors,  and  irt 
Antique,  Mahogany,  Cherry,  Birch,  Walnut,  Oak,  Ash,  Redwood, 
Sycamore,  Pine,  and  all  other  Domestic  Woods.  Finishing,  Filling, 
Staining,  Varnishing,  and  Polishing.  Also,  Miscellaneous  Rules- 
for  Dyeing,  (jilding,  and  Bronzing. —  Compiled  and  Edited  by 
Fred.  T.  Hodgson,  late  Editor  of  The  Builder  and  Woodworlcr, 
and  of  The  Cabinetmaker  and  Upholsterer. —  ]2mo,  cloth.  .     .     $1 

In  this  country  the  art  of  using  wood  for  almost  every  purpose  h.is  gone  far 
beyond  anything  that  has  ever  been  attempted  by  any  other  people.  The  modern 
houses  of  the  Americans  are  finished  with  a  richness  and  beauty  in  the  woodwork, 
of  wliicli  our  fathers,  not  to  speak  of  our  grandfathers,  had  little  idea.  Tlie  car- 
penter, builder,  or  painter  who  does  not  fully  understand  the  best  methods  of 
finishing  tlie  hard  woods  so  as  to  preserve  and  increase  tlieir  beauty  is  behind  the 
times.  The  object  of  this  book  is  to  aid  him  in  acquiring  the  knowledge  necessary 
to  this  end ;  and  the  author  has  certainly  succeeded  in  producing  an  exhaustive 
treatise  on  the  subject. 

THE     ENGINEER'S     HANDY-BOOK: 

Containing  a  series  of  Useful  Calculations  for  Engineers,  Tool- 
makers,  Millwrights,  Draughtsmen,  Foremen  in  Engineering  Es- 
tablishments, and  for  the  better  class  of  Mechanics  and  Artizans 
generally.  Also,  Rules  to  determine  the  Proportion  of  Wheels  for 
Screw-cutting  by  a  Lathe,  &c. —  From  the  fifth  London  edition, 
with  American   additions. —  32mo,  cloth 50  cents^ 

PLAIN    DIRECTIONS    FOR    THE 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  ERECTION  of  LIGHTNING- 
RODS. —  By  John  Phin,  C.E.,  author  of  "Chemical  History  of 
the  Si.x  Days  of  Creation,"  "How  to  Use  the  Microscope,"  &c. 
Enlarged  and  fully  illustrated. —  Third  edition. —  12mo,  cloth, 
gilt  title 75  cents. 

This  is  a  well-known  and  standard  work.  It  is  simple  and  practical,  intended 
to  convey  just  sucli  information  as  will  enable  every  ])ropertyowner  to  decide- 
whether  or  not  his  buildings  are  thoroughly  protected.  It  is  the  only  book  on  this 
subject  published  in  this  country  that  has  not  been  written  in  the  interest  of  some 
patent  or  some  manufacturing  concern.  By  following  its  directions  any  ordinarily- 
skillful  mechanic  can  put  up  a  rod  that  will  afford  perfect  protection,  and  that  will 
not  Infringe  on  any  patent.    Every  owner  of  a  house  or  bam  ought  to  procure  a  cojjy. 

TRADE    "SECRETS"    AND      PRIVATE      RECIPES. 

A  Collection  of  Recipes,  Processes,  and  Formulas  that  have  been 
offered  for  sale  at  prices  varying  from  25  cents  to  $500.  With 
J  Notes,  Corrections,  Additions,  and  Special  Hints  for  Improve- 
ments.—  Edited  by  John  Phin,  assisted  by  an  experienced  and 
skillful  pharmacist. —  Cloth,  gilt  title 60  cents. 

This  work  was  prepared  by  the  author  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  pre- 
senting in  a  compact  form  all  those  recipes  and  so-called  "trade  secrets"  which 
have  been  so  extensively  advertised  and  offered  for  sale.  It  is  by  no  means  a 
claptrap  book,  though  it  exposes  many  claptraps.  It  contains  a  large  amount  of 
valuable  information  that  can  not  be  readily  found  elsewhere:  and  it  gives  not  only 
the  formulae,  &c..  for  manufactiiriui;  an  immense  v.ariety  of  articles,  but  important 
and  trustwortliy  hints  as  to  the  best  way  of  making  money  out  of  them.  Even  as  a. 
book  of  recipes  it  is  worth  more  than  its  price  to  any  one  who  is  interested  in  thei 
subject  on  which  it  treats. 


CATALOCtVE    of  IXDUSTBTAL   BOOKS. 


A    PRACTICAL    GUIDE    TO 

SUCCESS     IN     THE      USE     OF     RECIPES, 

Formula,  &c.,  with  Hints  on  Chemical  and  Mechanical  Manipula- 
tion.—  Intended  as  a  supplement   to   all  books  of  recipes. —  By 

John   Phin. —  12mo,  paper 25  cents. 

WHiile  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  many  of  the  recipes  published  in  the  ordinary 
collections  are  erroneous,  either  from  original  blunders  on  the  part  of  the  authors 
or  from  mistakes  in  copying,  failure  in  the  use  of  others  frequently  arises  from 
"defective  information  and  vicious  methods  on  the  part  of  those  who  attempt  to  put 
them  in  practice.  The  object  of  the  present  book  is  to  give  such  hints  and  cautions 
as  will  enable  the  worker  to  secure  .success  where  success  is  jiossible;  and  where 
the  products  are  intended  for  sale  it  gives  special  and  valuable  advice  as  to  the  best 
methods  of  putting  tliem  on  the  market. 

A    MANUAL    OF    INSTRUCTION    IN 

THE      ART      OF      WOOD       ENGRAVING. 

With  a  Description  of  the  necessary  Tools  and  Apparatus,  and 
Concise  Directions  for  their  Use;  Explanations  of  the  Terms  used 
and  tlie  Methods  employed  for  producing  the  various  classes  of 
"Wood  Engra\nngs.— By' S.  E.  Fuller.— Fully  illustrated  with 
engravings  by  the  author,  separate  sheets  of  engravings  for  trans- 
fer and  practice  being  added. —  New  edition,  neatly  bound.  50  cts. 

A  really  thorough  and  practical  work,  written  for  those  who  want  to  learn  the 
tirt  \vit)iciut  t)ie  aid  of  a  teacher. 

A     GUIDE     TO      COLLODIO      ETCHING.-By 

Rev.  Benjamin    Hartley. —  Illustrated   by  the   author. —  12mo, 

clotli $1.00 

This  volume  gives  complete  and  minute  instnictions  for  one  of  the  most  delight- 
ful of  amateur  arts.  It  is  fully  illustrated  by  woodcuts  of  all  the  apparatus  used 
(which  is  very  simple  and  easily  made),  and  also  by  actual  photo-prints  of  the 
etchings  themselves. 

THE     PRACTICAL     POCKET     COMPANION. 

A  Cyclopedia  of  the  most  useful  Facts,  Figures,  and  General 
Information  required  by  everybody  in  ever3'day  life. —  Edited  by 
John  Phin,  author  of  "How  to  Use  the  Microscope,"  "TheWork- 
sliop  Companion,"  "Chemical  History  of  the  Six  Days  of  Crea- 
tion." &c'. —  Numerous  illustrations ,10  cents. 

Contents. —  Abbreviations  in  Common  Use — Business  Laws  and  Commercial 
Rules — Acceptances — Agencies — Bills  of  Exchange — Checquos — Common  CaiTiers — 
<l'i)i|  Mirations — Law  of  Finding — Indorsements — Innkeepers — Negotiable  Instruments 
— I'.irtnersliips — Promissory  Notes — Protests — Receipts — Concrete  Walls  for  Houses 
— Copyiigbts — Rules  for  Correspondence — How  to  treat  Accidents  to  the  Eye — Fac- 
tors of  Safety — Best  Methods  of  Extinguishing  Fives — Language  of  Flowers — i^ig- 
jiificjiuce  of  (Jems  and  Precious  Stones — Periods  of  Cestation  and  Incubation — Legal 
Holidays — Homestead  Law — Distingiiishing  Characteristics  and  Anxious  Periods  of 
Infectious  Diseases — Prevention  of  Attacks  of  Insects — Knots,  and  How  to  Tie 
Tliem.  Willi  full  page  of  illnstnitions— (General  Rules — Single  Draw-knot — Oalley- 
knot — .Squ.-ireknot.  or  lieefingknot — Weaver's-knot,  or  Slieetbend-knol — Half  bitch 
— Two  Half  bitches— Clove-bitcli — Timber-liitch— Bowline-knot—  Fisherman's-knot 
— Wliippiiig  or  Binding — Tying  Parcels — Care  of  Leather — Lightniny-rods,  general 
rules  for — Host  Materials — Proper  !->/,e  anil  Best  Shajies  of  Rod— Painting— Points, 
or  Air-Terminals — Ground  Connections — .^rransement  and  Mode  of  Attaching  tlie 
Rod  to  th->  House — Value  of  Moneys  of  Forei'.:n  N.ations — P.nssijorts—  Patents — .Viiti- 
<lotcs  for  Poisons — Postal  Uules  and  Rates — Railroad  -•uid  .Steamboat  Signal-; — Rules 
for  .Sjielling  and  t)ie  Use  of  Capitals— Trade-marks — Weather  Iudicat'^ns,  &c. 


CATALOaVE    OF  INDUSTRIAL  BOOKS. 

WHAT   TO    DO   AND    HOW  TO    DO    IT   IN    CASE 

OF  ACCIDENT.— A  book  for  everybody.— Cloth,  gilt.   50  cts. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  books  ever  published.  It  tells  exactly  what  to 
do  in  case  of  accidents,  such  as  severe  cuts,  sprains,  dislocations,  broken  bones, 
bui'us  with  tire,  scalds,  burns  with  corrosive  chemicals,  sunstroke,  snft'dcation  by 
foul  air,  hanging,  drowning,  frostbite,  tainting,  stings,  starvation,  liglitnini:.  poisons, 
accidents  from  machinery  and  from  tlie  falling  of  scaffolding,  gunsliot  wdiiiids.  &c. 
It  ouglit  to  be  in  every  house,  for  young  and  old  are  liable  to  aceiiient,  and  tlie 
directions  given  in  this  book  might  be  the  means  of  saving  many  a  valuable  life. 

COMMON    SENSE    IN   THE    POULTRY-YARD. 

A  Story  of  Failures  and   Successes,  including  a  full  account  of 
1,000  hens  and  what  they  did.    With  a  complete  description  of  the 
houses,  coops,  fences,  runs,  methods  of  feeding,  breeding,  market- 
ing, &e.,  and  many  new  wrinkles   and   economical  dodges. —  By 
J.  P.  Haig. — With  numerous  illustrations. — Cloth,  gilt  title.      $1 
This  is  a  lively  and  entertaining  work,  which  embodies  the  actual  experience  of 
many  years  in  the  keeping  of  poultry  in  large  and  small  numbers.     It  is  tlie  most 
thoroughly  practical  work  on  poultry  in  the  market,  aud  contains  an  amount  of 
solid  information  which,  to  eveu  the  keeper  of  a  dozen  fowls,  will  make  it  worth 
many  times  its  cost. 

A    DICTIONARY    OF    PRACTICAL     BEE-KEEPING. 

With  Notes  and  Practical  Hints.— By  John  Phin,  author  of 
"How  to  Use   the   Microscope,"  &c. —  Numerous   illustrations. — 

Cloth,  gilt 50  cents. 

This  work  discusses  thoroughly  nearly  five  hundred  subjects.  Gives  in  con- 
densed form  an  immense  amount  of  valuable  information  under  the  different  head- 
ings. Under  the  heads  Bee,  Comb,  Glucose,  Honey.  Race,  Species.  Srigar,  Wax,  and 
others,  it  brings  together  a  large  number  of  important  facts  and  figures  now  scat- 
tered through  our  bee  literature  and  costly  scientific  works,  and  are  not  easily 
fotmd  when  wanted.    Here  they  can  be  referred  to  at  once  under  the  proper  head. 

PLAIN     DIRECTIONS     FOR    ACQUIRING 

THE    ART    OF    SHOOTING    ON    THE    WING. 

With  Useful  Hints  concerning  all  that  relates  to  Guns  and  Shoot- 
ing, particularly  in  regard  to  the  art  of  loading  so  as  to  kill.  To 
which  has  been  added  several  valuable  and  hitherto  secret  recipes, 
of  great  practical  importance  to  the  sportsman. — By  An  Old  Game- 
keeper.—  12rao,  cloth 75  cents. 

This  book  contains  a  novel  and  most  valuable  feature  found  in  no  other  work  on 
this  subject.  This  is  a  series  of  graduated  lessons  by  which  the  self-taught  young 
sportsman  is  enabled  to  advance  step  bv  step  from  such  easy  marks  as  a  sheet  of  pa- 
per nailed  on  a  fence  to  the  most  difficult  trap-shooting  and  the  sharpest  snap-shots. 

THE    PISTOL  AS    A  WEAPON    OF   DEFENCE, 

>   In  the  House  and  on  the  Road.— 12mo,  cloth.  ...     50  cents. 

This  work  aims  to  instruct  peaceable  and  law-abiding  citizens  in  the  best  means 
of  protecting  themselves  from  the  attacks  of  the  brutal  and  the  lawlass,  and  it  is  the 
only  practical  book  published  on  this  subject.     Its  contents  are  as  follows  :— 

The  Pistol  as  a  Weapon  of  Defence— The  Carrying  of  Firearms— Different  kinds 
of  Pistols  in  Market— How  to  Choose  a  Pistol— Ammunition,  different  kmds :  powder, 
caps,  bullets,  copper  cartridges,  &c.— Best  form  of  Bullet— How  to  Load— Best 
Charge  for  Pistols— How  to  Regulate  the  Charge— Care  of  the  Pistol :  how  to  clean 
it— How  to  Handle  and  Carrv  the  Pistol— How  to  Learn  to  Shf>ot— Practical  Use  of 
the  Pistol— How  to  Protect  Yourself  and  Disable  your  Antagonist. 


CATALOGUE    OF  IXDUSTRTaL  BOOKS. 


CHEMICAL  HISTORY  of  the  SIX  DAYS  of  CREATION 

By  John  Phin,  author  of  "How  to  Use  the  Microscope,"  &c. 
12iiio,  cloth 75  cents. 

In  this  volume  an  attempt  is  made  to  trace  the  evolution  of  our  globe  from  the 
primeval  state  of  nebulous  mist,  "without  form  and  void,"  and  existing  in  "dark- 
ness," or  with  an  entire  al)sence  of  the  manifestation  of  the  pliysical  forces,  to  the 
condition  in  which  it  was  fitted  to  become  the  habitation  of  man.  While  the  state- 
ments and  conclusions  are  rigidly  scientific,  it  gives  some  exceedingly  novel  views 
of  a  rather  hackneyed  subject. 

THE  SUN:  A  Familiar  Description  of  his  Phenomena. 

By  Rev.  Thomas  William  Webb,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  author  of 
"Celestial  Objects  for  Common  Telescopes." — With  numerous 
illustrations. —  12mo,  cloth 40  cents. 

This  work  gives,  in  a  delightfully  popular  style,  an  account  of  the  most  recent 
discoveries  in  regard  to  the  sun.     It  is  freely  illustrated. 

HOW      TO      USE       THE       MICROSCOPE. 

A  Book  of  Practical  Hints  on  the  Selection  and  Use  of  the 
Microscope.  Intended  for  beginners. —  By  John  Phin,  editor  of 
The  American  Journal  of  Microscopy. —  Sixth  edition.  Greatly 
enlarged,  with  over  eighty  engravings  in  the  text,  and  eight  full- 
page  engravings,  printed  on  heavy  tint  paper. — 12rao,  cloth.    $1.25 

This  work  has  been  received  with  such  general  favor  that  it  has  passed  through 
five  large  editions  in  a  few  years.  It  gives  a  full  account  of  the  different  kinds  of 
microscopes;  of  tlie  various  accessories,  and  of  the  best  methods  of  using  them; 
of  the  best  methods  of  collecting,  preparing,  and  preserving  objects,  and  preparing 
slides  and  cabinets.  Many  of  the  illustrations,  devices,  and  methods  used,  are 
original  witli  the  author,  altliougli  tliey  have  been  freely  copied  and  appropriated 
■without  credit  by  several  other  writers. 

A     BOOK     FOR 

BEGINNERS     WITH     THE      MICROSCOPE. 

Being  an  abri<lgeraent  of  "How  to  Use  the  Microscope." — By 
Jonx  Phin. —  Fully  illustrated,  and  neatly  and  strongly  bound 
in    cloth 50  cents. 

This  book  was  prepared  for  the  use  of  those  who.  having  no  knowledge  of  the 
nsp  of  the  microscope, —  or,  indeed,  of  ;iny  scientitic  apparatus, —  desire  sinijile  and 
practical  instruction  in  the  best  nietliods  of  managing  the  instrument  and  i)rei)aring 

Otljl'I'tS. 

THE     MICROSCOPE.— Liy  Andrew  Boss.— Fully  illustrated. 

12mo,  clcth,  gilt  title 75  cents. 

This  is  the  celebrated  article  contributed  by  Andrew  Ross  to  "The  Penny  Cyclo- 
pedia," and  quoted  so  frequently  by  writers  on  the  microscope.  Carpenter  and 
Hogg,  in  the  latest  editions  of  tlieir  works  on  the  microscope,  and  Hrooke,  in  bis 
treatise  on  Natural  Pliilosopliy.  all  refer  to  this  article  as  the  best  source  for  full 
and  clear  information  in  reg;ird  lo  the  prin''ii)les  upon  which  t}ie  modi-m  .•iclnomarin 
mii-roscope  is  constructed.  It  sliould  In-  in  ihe  lilmiry  of  every  pi-rson  to  whntn  the 
microscope  is  more  than  a  toy.  It  is  written  in  simple  language,  free  from  abstruse 
technicalities. 


A  Novelty  in  Journalism.. 

Industrial  Receipts. 

A  MONTHLY  JOURNAL  OF 

Teclinical  Information  for  Workers. 

In  Every  Department  of  the  Industrial  Arts. 


Every  mechanic,  farmer,  housekeeper,  student  of  practical  science 
and  amateur  has  occasion  at  one  time  or  another  to  hunt  up  a 
RECEIPT  for  making  some  prepai'ation  or  performing  some  oper- 
ation which  is  necessary  in  the  ordinary  course  of  work.  Hence  a 
book  of  receipts  is  almost  a  necessity  in  every  Workshop,  Laboea- 
TOKY  AND  Household. 

The  object  of  Industrial  Receipts  is  not  only  to  furnish  a  Com- 
plete Collection  of  Tried  Formulic,  Rules  and  Directions,  but  to  give 
such  current  notes,  hints  and  information  as  will  enable  the  reader 
to  take  advantage  of  the  latest  improvements  and  discoveries  in  this 
direction.  To  accomplish  this  we  propose  to  adojot  the  following 
original  and,  as  we  think,  very  feasible  plan: 

1— We  will  give,  in  consecutive  numbers,  and  in  alphabetical 
order,  a  complete  body  of  Receipts  and  Technical  Information.  This 
will  be  so  paged  that  when  complete  it  may  be  bound  into  a  conve- 
nient volume  for  reference,  thus  forming  a  complete  "  Cyclopjedia 
of  Practical  Receipts." 

2  — Notes  upon  new  materials  and  formula3,  with  special  discus- 
sions of  processes,  methods  of  working,  etc. 

3 — Special  information  for  subscribers  given  under  the  head  of 
answers  to  correspondents.  In  this  department  we  have  secured  the 
assistance  of  several  able  and  thoroughly  practical  scientists. 

4 — Notices  of  Current  Events,  New  Books  and  other  matters  re- 
lating to  our  specialty,  with  Abstracts  of  Important  Papers. 

The  price  of  the  Journal  will  be  fl.OO  per  year.  Single  numbers, 
10  cents.  Specimen  numbers  will  be  sent  on  receipt  of  5  cents 
(postage  stamps  will  do). 

Club  Rates— As  it  is  our  object  to  attain  a  large  circulation  we 
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tion. To  those  who  send  us  three  sul)scribers  at  $1.00  each  we  will 
send  a  fourth  copy/?'ee.  An  hour's  work  will  therefore  enable  almost 
any  one  to  obtain  a  copy  of  this  exceedingly  valuable  work. 
Address  all  communications  to 

The  Industrial  Publication  Company, 

10  Thomas  Street,      =         =         =      NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 


IMPORTANT    ANNOUNCEMENT 

TO  AKOHITECTS,  COXTKAC'TORS  AND  BUILDERS. 

For  many  years  past  there  lias  been  a  want  by  the  building  fraternity  of  a  good 
and  reliable  book  on  Estimating,  one  that  will  give  prices  of  materials  and  labor 
for  every  department  of  building,  so  far  as  this  is  possible.  Such  a  book,  the  pub- 
lishers believe,  has  at  last  been  produced,  and  is  now  offered  to  those  interested. 

THE  BUILDER'S  GUIDE, 

AND  ESTDIATOirS  PRICE  BOOK. 

By    FRED.    T.    IIODOSON. 


UAyOSOMELT  BOUyi)  IN  CLOTIf,  GILT  TITLE.  PlilCE,  -  $2.00. 
Current  Prices  of  Liiinher,  Ilaidware,  Glass,  I'liimbers' Supplies,  Paints, 
Slates,  Stones,  Limes,  Cements,  IJrieks,  Tin  and  other  ISnildin^  Materials; 
also.  Prices  of  Labor,  and  Cost  of  Performing  tlie  Several  Kinds  of  Work 
Required  in  Building.  Together  with  I'rices  of  Doors,  Frames,  Sashes, 
Stairs,  3Iouldings,  Newels,  and  other  Machine  AVork.  To  which  is  appended 
a  large  number  of  Building  Rules,  Data,  Tables  and  Useful  Memoranda, 
with  a  Glossary  of  Architectural  and  Building  Terms. 

This  is  an  entirely  new  work,  and  gi\es  Prices  of  Labor  and  Materials  down 
to  a  recent  date,  and  is,  therefore,  the  most  reliable  book  in  tlie  market  on  the 
subject  of  prices  of  labor  and  materials  required  for  building.  The  work  con- 
tains, besides  Prices,  Data,  Rules,  and  Several  Hundred  Tables  and  Hints  on 
Building,  a  blank  column  where  the  prices  of  Labor  or  Material  may  be  written 
in  pencil,  where  such  prices  diffi-r  from  those  given  in  the  book.  There  is  also 
a  very  complete  Glossary  of  Huilding  and  Architectural  Terms  appended  to  the 
work,  which  is  a  useful  and  valuable  addition  for  i)ractical  builders. 

The  work  is  really  a  Cyclopanlia  of  Prices  and  Builder's  Tables,  Data  and 
Memoranda,  and  is  necessarily  a  large  work,  having  over  330  pages,  each  page 
being  "j  x  4^,  and  covered  with  closely  i)rintefl  matter. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  what  the  work  contains,  we  give  the  following  brief 

SYi^opsis  OF  <:o.^xe:\ts: 

Part  \. — Contains  Hints  and  Rules  for  Correct  Estimating. — Forms  for  Taking 
Estimates.  Quantities,  Prices,  and  Manner  of  Computation. —General  Memoraiuhi 
of  Items  for  Estimates. — Excavations. — Foundations. — Drains.— Iron  Work. — 
Baths  and  Water  Closets.— Brick  Walls.— Carpenter's  Work. — Toincr's  Work.— 
Mantels,  Grates,  Stove  Fittings,  etc.— Pantry.  Closets.  Kilelu'iis  and  Appurten- 
ances.— Bell  Hanging.  Gas  Fixing  and  Fixtures.— stairs  and  Staircases. — Roofs, 
Gutters  and  Couduclors.  —  Porches,  \'erandas  and  Fences.— Framing;  Cost  of 
same. — Cost  of  Painting,  Plastering,  Shingling.  Slating.  Tinning,  Finishing, 
Glazing,  Building  Chimneys,  and  f)ther  Brick  Work.— Rules  for  Measuring  all 
kinils  of  Hip  and  other  Roofs,  with  Cost  of  same.— Rough  Boarding.  Shingling, 
Siding.  Laying  Floors,  and  otlu-r  Work.- Cost  of  Material  and  T-abor  for  Stairs, 
Newels,  Balusters.  Rails,  Doors.  .Mouldinirs.  Slidiiiir  anil  i'olding  Doors.  Windows 
of  all  kinds.  Hlimls,  Wainscoting.  liasel)oards.  Finials,  Cresting.  Plumbing,  Floor- 
ing, and  everytliing  else  used  at)out  a  Building. 

Paut  II. — Contains  an  Extensive  Schedule  of  Builder's  Prices,  for  Digging, 
Bhovelling,  Rantming  in  Loose  Earth.  Clay  and  Gravel. — Cost  of  Masonry, 
Rubble,  Hammer-Dressed  Work,  Rough  Rock: W^ork,  Reveals,  Ashler  Work,  Re- 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONTENTS   {ContlllUCJp. 

pairs,  Arclics.  Plain  Work,  llnbbod  Work.  Beaded  Work.  Kliiiiiiii,  Reodin<r, 
Tliroatiii^,  Grooviiiir.  Rel)alin.ir,  Leadiiiic  in  Work.  Snnken  Work.  Mortising, 
etc.— Prices  of  all  kinds  ot  Native  Stones  jier  Cnliic  Foot.— Prices  of  Cements; 
Portland.  Rosendale.  Kcene's.  IJine  of  Teil.  Lime.  Lath.  Slate,  etc.  -  Bricklay- 
inii';  Price  iier  l.noo.  Laborer's  Waiics.  Prices  of  ISricks  of  Dill'erent  (Jrades,  Cir- 
cular and  Ellii)tical  Work.  Hrick  Pavinii' of  all  kinds.  Laid  Dry  or  in  Mortar. — 
Drain  Pipes,  Cost  and  (finality;  Terra-Cotia  Cbininey  Toi)s.  ('reslin^■.  Tiles  and 
MouldiniiS,  etc. — Colored  Uricks,  Tuck  I'oinlini:-.  Sellinu^  in  Sash  and  Door 
Frauies.'Taking  Down  Old  Work,  Kebnildinti-  with  Old  Bricks,  Firebricks,  Tile 
Work.  Quality  and  Prices  of  Bricks  from  Various  Localities,  Prices  of  Peerless- 
Brick  Company's  Colored  Bricks,  Colored  Mortars  and  Cements,  Odd-Shaped 
P.ricks.— Plasterer  s  Work.  Scaftbldin^-.  Lathing.  Mortars  for  all  kinds  of  Work. 
Cements  for  Walls  and  Ceiliniis.  Cornices  and  Stucco  Woi'k.  Plaste!--of-Paris 
Flower  and  Ornamental  Work.  Kalsomiinnif  and  Washes  ot  all  Kinds.  Carpen- 
ter's and  Joiner's  Work  :  WaL^es.  Pricesof  Lumber.  Prices  of  Made-uji  Stull'of  all 
Kinds. — Hard-wood  Work.  Nails.  Screws.  Locks,  Butts  and  other  Hardware. — 
Stairs  of  alPKinds.  Table  for  Finding  the  Run  and  Rise  of  Treads  and  Risers, 
Turned  Work  for  Stairs  and  other  Work.— Painting,  Colors,  Prices  for  Different 
Kinds  of  Work,  Ladders,  Scaflolding,  Tools,  Graining,  Painting  Iron  Work, 
Staining,  Repairinir  Old  Work.  Numerical  Work,  Varnishing,  Lettering.  Oiling, 
Sash  and  Door  Painting.  Mixing  Colors,  Prices  of  Colors,  Miscellaneous  Re- 
marks.—Rootinsi"  Materials  of  all  Kinds,  with  Prices  and  Cost  of  Laying;  Bell- 
Hanging  Materials,  Skylights,  Tubs,  Sinks,  Sheet  Iron,  Pumps,  Tanks,  Registers, 
Ventilators,  Wire  Ropes,  "and  other  matters  reciiiired  in  Building. 

Part  ITT.— Contains  Rules  for  Builder's  Bookkeeping.  Form  of  Balance  Sheets 
Rules  for  Measuring  Artificer's  Work,  including  Fxcavalinn.  Drains.  Shoring, 
Concretina-.  and  Labor  in  General :  also  Mctliods  of  Measuring  all  Kinds  of  Ma- 
terials for'Brick,  Stone,  or  Wood  Work.— Elements  of  the  Mechanics  of  Archi- 
tecture, Strength  of  Materials,  Rules  for  Obtaining  Same  ;  Iron,  Wood,  Stone 
and  Brick,  Crushing  Loads  for  Various  Building  Materials,  Columns,  Iron,  Wood, 
Stone.— Tables  for  Compnting  the  Strength  of  'Materials.  Factors  of  Safety, 
Rolled-Iron  Beams  and  Girders.— Bricks  arid  Brick  Piers,  Terra-Cotta.  Strength 
and  Qualities  of  Cements  and  Mortars,  Fire-Brick,  Colored  Mortars,  Granite  and 
other  Stone. 

Part  IV.— Miscellaneous  Tables.— Weight  of  Iron,  Lead,  Brass,  Copper  and 
Cast  Iron,  per  Foot  Superficial  or  in  Bars ;  Strength  of  Round  Ropes,  Weight  of 
Boiler  Iron,  Wrought-Iron  Pipes.  Flat  and  Round  Wire  Ropes  for  Elevators.  Iron 
Rooflni;:,  Lead  Pipes,  Nails,  Foreign  Weights  and  ]\Ieasures,  Force  of  Wind, 
Square  Measiu-e,  Long  Measure,  Equivalents.  Arithmetical  and  other  Sign.s.  Ex- 
pansion by  Heat,  Force  of  Explosives,  Number  of  Shingles,  Slates.  Tiles  and 
other  Covering  Required  ff)r  100  feet  of  Roofing,  Number^of  Bricks  Required  for 
Given  Wall,  Strength  of  Woods,  Loads  for  Bridges,  Strains  on  Bridges  and 
Trusses,  Specific  Gravities. 

Part  V.— Mensuration  of  Superfices,  Areas  of  Sqttares,  Cubes,  Triangles, 
Midti-sided  Figures,  etc.;  Measurements  of  Solids,  Cubes,  Cones,  Cylinders, 
Spheres,  etc.;  Squares  and  Cubes  of  Numbers,  Table  of  Spherical  Contents, 
Diameters,  Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles,  Board  and  Plank  Measure, 
Scantling  Measure,  Wages  Table,  Sizes  and  Capacities  of  Cribs,  Boxes  and  Tanks. 

Part  VI.— Mechanics'  Lien  Laws  of  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Connecticut.  Cali- 
fornia, Colorado,  District  of  Columbia,  Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia.  Indiana, 
Iowa.  Illinois,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Louisiana,  Massachusetts.  Maryland, 
Mississippi,  Michigan,  Missouri",  New  Jersey,  Nevada,  Nebraska,  New  Hamp- 
shire, North  Carolina,  New  York,  Oregon,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island, 
South  Carolina,  Texas,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin, 
Ontario. 

Part  VII.— Schedule  of  Architect's  Charffes,  Drawings,  Superintendence,  Per- 
centage on  Public  Buildinss.— Architect's  Rules  and  Methods  of  Charging  for 
Services  Rendered.— Leading  Architectural  and  Building  Journals.— Glossary  of 
Architecttiral  and  Building  Terms.  (This  "Glossary"  covers  some  fifty-seven 
pages,  and  deals  with  over  One  Thousand  Terms  used  in  Architecture  and 
Building). 


Just  Published.  ^ 

THE  UNIVERSAL 

Carpenter  and  Joiner. 

By  FRED  T.  HODGSON, 

Author   of   "The    Steel  Square  and   Its  Uses,"  "  Practical  Carpentry,' 

"  Stairbuildhuf  Made  Easy,"    "  The  Builders  Guide  and 

Estimator's  Price-Book,"  etc.,  etc. 


PART    I. 

This  part  is  devoted  to  Carpenter's  Geometry,  wliich  is  presented 
in  simple  form,  giving  easily  imderstood  methods  of  Describing 
Mouldings,  Gothic  Arches,  Turned  "Works,  Ornaments;  Drawing  In- 
struments; Care  of  Instruments  ;  Scales,  How  to  Use  Them  ;  Various 
Methods  of  Copying  Drawings — the  Blue  Process,  the  Black  Process  ; 
"Waxing  ;  Use  of  the  Pantagraph,  etc.,  etc.  It  gives  not  only  the 
rules  and  theory,  biat  examples  of  their  practical  applications  in 
Carpentry  and  Joinery,  showing  how  to  get  and  work  dithcult  "cuts  " 
and  })itches. 

Over  250  Illustrations.    Royal  8vo,  bound  in  stiff  paper  cover,  $1.00 

The  aim  of  the  Author  is  to  make  the  above  work  the  most  com- 
plete treatise  on  Carpentry  and  Joiuerj'  published  to  date,  and  the 
publishers  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  success  which  Mr. 
Hodgson  has  achieved  during  the  past  twenty  years  in  furnishing 
the  mechanics  of  this  country  with  thoroughly  reliable  and  easily 
understood  text-boolis,  is  a  sure  guarantee  of  the  excellence  of 
liis  present  effort. 

It  will  be  issued  in  Five  Parts,  each  Part  consisting  of  over  100 
large  royal  octavo  pages,  printed  on  fine  ])aper,  and  strongly  bound 
in  stiff  paper  covers  ;  and  as  it  is  the  intention  of  the  publishers  to 
place  this  important  work  within  the  reach  of  every  industrious 
mechanic  and  apprentice  in  the  land,  tluy  have  placed  the  jirice  at 
$1.00  per  Part.  Many  works  in  the  market,  containing  no  more 
matter  than  a  single  Part,  and  not  so  well  illustrated,  are  now  selling 
for  from  S5.0U  to  $10.(X)  each. 

EACH   PART  WILL  BE  COMPLETE  IN   ITSELF. 

When  complete,  the  Five  Parts  will  form  a  handsome  volume, 
the  price  of  which,  bound  in  extra  cloth,  in  the  very  best  stj'le  of  the 
art,  will  be  S^S.OO. 

Part  II,  which  is  the  most  handsomely  illustrated  volume  on 
Carpentry  now  before  the  public,  is  nearly  ready 

Industrial  Publication  Company, 

16  Thomas  Street,      -         -         =      NEW  YORK    N.  Y. 


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